Tracing the Source of the Elephant And Hippopotamus Ivory from ...

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plants in the wet season and C3 in the dry season is made more visible in growing animals due to a high collagen turnover rate (Sukumar and Ramesh 1992: 536-538; 1995: 372). The researchers, like van der Merwe et al. (1988), also noticed that more of the carbon in collagen was incorporated from C3 plants, thus under-representing the C4 component. This may be explained by higher protein contribution of C3 to the diet (per unit of quantity consumed), so that C3 plants are more important to the diet of elephants for growth. The carbon from C4 grasses may be more important for other metabolic functions however (Sukumar and Ramesh 1992: 536; 1995: 368-373). Figure 36: Percentage of time spent in feeding on C3 (browse) plants on average during different seasons by adult elephants (solid circles, upper line) and sub-adult elephants (open circles, bottom line). The dry season is from December to April and the wet season is May to November (Sukumar and Ramesh 1992: 538). 113
Table 4: Percentage of C3 plants in diet as inferred from stable carbon isotope ratios of bone collagen in African elephant population. Data from Sukumar and Ramesh (1995: 370) and Tieszen et al. (1989). Region/Country Vegetation type δ 13 C per mil SD % C3 plants in diet Nilgiris-E.Ghats, India Moist & dry -18.6 ± 1.36 71 deciduous forest (n=16, adults) Tsavo, Kenya Grasslands & dense woodland East Tsavo, Kenya Grassland Addo, South Africa Portulacaria thicket Damaraland, Namibia Semi desert Luangwa, Zambia Mixed woodland with mopane Liwonde, Malawi Mopane woodland with marsh Kruger, South Africa Bushveld savanna Kasungu, Malawi Brachystegia woodland Nazinga, Burkino Faso Northern guinea savanna Parc W., Niger Northern guinea savanna Shimba Hills, Kenya Forest-woodland mosaic Knysna, South Africa Coastal forest Gola, Sierra Leone Rain forest 114 -16.4 ± 3.61 (n=65, all ages) 57 -18.4 ± 0.18 (n=65) 75 -16.4 ± 0.7 (n=4) 65 -17.0 ± 0.4 (n=5) 68 -19.0 (n=1) 82 -17.9 ± 0.2 (n=4) 75 -19.3 ± 0.3 (n=3) 85 -20.8 ± 1.0 (n=34) 97 -19.8 ± 0.3 (n=4) 88 -21.9 (n=2) 100 -22.0 ± 0.3 (n=5) 100 -22.2 ± 0.3 (n=4) 100 -23.2 (n=1) 100 -24.0 (n=1) 100 Sapo, Liberia Primary rain forest -27.3 ± 0.5 (n=8) 100
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Tracing the Source of the Elephant
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Table of Contents List of Tables iv
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Mechanisms of Late Bronze Age trade
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List of Figures Figure 1. Morpholog
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Figure 35. Average δ 13 C values o
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Figure 69. KW 2557 (Hippopotamus tu
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“merchants” to a larger degree
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skeletal part to verify the presenc
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possibility of sophisticated scient
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B.C. and resumed Egyptian campaigni
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urbanization at centers such as Enk
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incisors”) of the elephant. Each
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Dentine in elephant tusks is essent
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perpendicular to the tubules....[co
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Figure 3 : The incisors and canines
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for the elephant, is where the dent
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Chapter 3 The Archaeological, Histo
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pastoralism. Today most of the hipp
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emains in the Syro-Palestinian regi
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near Beersheba. An EB I lower right
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Figure 13: The distribution of Midd
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Figure 14: 18 th Dynasty Egyptian t
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Chapter 4 The Archaeological, Histo
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Figure 16: Present distribution of
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Maghreb was inaccessible or nonexis
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flooding and dense human population
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BCE), mentions imports of approxima
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The degree of contact between the L
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Minoan and Mycenaean sherds from th
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are lacking in North Africa, but th
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Part II: The Syrian Elephant Turnin
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Figure 22: Location of Ghab Valley
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elephants show a lower preference f
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similar to those of the African ele
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Chapter 5 Ivory Workshops in the La
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of the waste pieces may be reused f
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ivory and silver (Odyssey XIX.55) a
Page 75 and 76: century B.C. (LH I-LH IIIB), but th
Page 77 and 78: ivory from a burnt deposit in Thebe
Page 79 and 80: Tell Fakhariyah has only yielded ex
Page 81 and 82: Figure 28: Comparison of utilizatio
Page 83 and 84: Much of the discussion about Palest
Page 85 and 86: (Lilyquist 1998: 27; Gachet 1993: 7
Page 87 and 88: argues that for both of the types
Page 89 and 90: The End of Ivory-working in the LBA
Page 91 and 92: study residence and mobility. Katze
Page 93 and 94: feeding on the plant (Sukumar and R
Page 95 and 96: 4‰ lower than those of marine pla
Page 97 and 98: Studies which have focused on evalu
Page 99 and 100: sediments in one area had isotopic
Page 101 and 102: local environment, and thus answer
Page 103 and 104: Figure 32: Sr concentrations plotte
Page 105 and 106: Figure 34: 87 Sr/ 86 Sr vs. age of
Page 107 and 108: Chapter 7 Ecological and Dietary Re
Page 109 and 110: wide, straight lips of the hippo en
Page 111 and 112: unlikely that many were actually ea
Page 113 and 114: proportion of C3 to C4 vegetation i
Page 115 and 116: diet as interpreted from the stable
Page 117 and 118: had larger ranges than those elepha
Page 119 and 120: Tchamba and Seme (1993) likewise re
Page 121 and 122: fact adapted to the desert, and thi
Page 123 and 124: Table 2: δ 13 C values and % C4 fr
Page 125: Figure 35: Average δ 13 C values o
Page 129 and 130: Table 5: Isotope values for Ambosel
Page 131 and 132: Figure 39: “Carbon and nitrogen i
Page 133 and 134: Table 6 (continued) 120
Page 135 and 136: Figure 41: δ 13 C versus δ 15 N f
Page 137 and 138: Figure 43: δ 13 C versus δ 15 N f
Page 139 and 140: Figure 44: δ 13 C versus 87 Sr/ 86
Page 141 and 142: In conclusion, isotopic analysis ha
Page 143 and 144: (Ugarit/Ras Shamra). Only two studi
Page 145 and 146: fault and is filled with flood-basa
Page 147 and 148: Figure 49: Geologic and fault map o
Page 149 and 150: The Negev Desert in Southern Israel
Page 151 and 152: The Eastern Mediterranean and the N
Page 153 and 154: and water and sediment from the Nil
Page 155 and 156: Figure 55: Contour diagrams for the
Page 157 and 158: Figure 56: The Sr isotope ratios in
Page 159 and 160: Figure 58: Schematic diagram along
Page 161 and 162: strontium data from Betton and Cive
Page 163 and 164: These flood basalts have 87 Sr/ 86
Page 165 and 166: Figure 63: Map of the Libyan Desert
Page 167 and 168: Table 7: Isotopic data of high-grad
Page 169 and 170: Chapter 11 Analytical Procedures, S
Page 171 and 172: Table 9: Collagen samples for analy
Page 173 and 174: USF # Museum Catalog # Table 10: Ap
Page 175 and 176: Figure 66: KW 1182 (Hippopotamus tu
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Figure 70: KW 3842 (Elephant ivory)
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Chapter 12 Results and Discussion R
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d18O (apatite, per mil) 3 2 1 0 -1
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and hippopotami are grazers. To com
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fetched (with the Nile ≈ +2‰).
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opposed to the 2-3 mg required for
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international environment. The LBA
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ecause they were subject to taxatio
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were other ruling elites (Ratnagar
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scientific archaeometric angle and
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Chapter 13 Conclusion and Suggestio
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compare, the more unique the region
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Aufderheide, A.C., Neiman, F.D., Wi
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Caubet, A., and Poplin, F. 1993. La
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Finley, M.I. 1981. Mycenaean palace
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Horn, P., and Müller-Sohnius, D.,
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Liebowitz, H. 1987. Late Bronze II
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Price, T.D., Grupe, G., and Schröt
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Sherratt, A., and Sherratt, S. 1991
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van der Merwe, N. J., Lee-Thorp, J.
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