Tracing the Source of the Elephant And Hippopotamus Ivory from ...

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description of the samples, and the results of the isotopic ratio analyses (Chapter Twelve) are presented before concluding with a discussion of the results (Chapter Thirteen) and suggestions for future research (Chapter Fourteen). Historical Background The Late Bronze Age marked the height of political centralization the eastern Mediterranean region had yet seen, with several major political powers sharing common boundaries buffered by a number of city-states ruled by minor kings. Egypt had expelled the Hyksos by the middle of the 16 th century B.C. and thereafter adopted an aggressive expansionist agenda to remove the threat of another such invasion, and probably also to atone for past injustices. A large portion of Palestine came under Egyptian control, with the result that Egypt shared a border for the first time with another major military power: the Mitanni in the 15 th century B.C. and the Hittites in the 14 th -13 th centuries. Egypt formed an alliance with the Mitanni in an attempt to curtail the growing presence of the Hittites to the west, and a long period of peace followed under Amenophis III (ruled 1390-1352 B.C.; low chronology), whose reign also signaled the beginning of the Amarna period, late XVIIIth Dynasty. The period is named after the site of Tell el- Amarna, where the next pharaoh Akhenaten (1352-1336 B.C.) based his distinctive social and religious reforms. The period is famously documented by the Amarna letters (cited as EA), clay tablets written primarily in Akkadian which recorded the royal correspondence with other rulers. After Akhenaten there followed a quick succession of pharaohs (including Tutankhamen), whose reigns were possibly cut short by the same plague that claimed several of the Hittite royalty. Horemheb then ruled from 1323-1295 5
B.C. and resumed Egyptian campaigning and tribute-collecting in Palestine (Kuhrt 1995: 185-202). The Uluburun thus sank towards the end of Horemheb’s reign, circa 1300 B.C. Palestine and North Syria were thus composed of many small city-states which jockeyed among themselves for power while also playing the larger powers off one another. Each minor king owed his throne to a “Great King,” whether this was the Egyptian pharaoh, or the Mitannian or Hittite king, and the minor kings had to give public loyalty to the king through gifts/tribute. The Egyptians had administrative centers in the region at Sumur, Gaza, and Kumidi (Kamid-el-Loz), and Canaanite royalty were sometimes brought up at the Egyptian court (Kuhrt 1995: 324-328). Meanwhile, from 1500/1480-1350/1340 B.C., the Mitanni controlled an area stretching from northwest Iran, through north Iraq and the very north of Syria to the southeastern corner of Anatolia (the western boundary in the vicinity of Maraş, where the elephant bone samples hail from for this present thesis). This region included the city-states of Alalakh (Tell Atchana), Aleppo, Emar, Taide, Alshe, Ugarit (held briefly), and the regions of Assyria (north Iraq) and Arrapha (Kirkuk region) (Yener 2001; Kuhrt 1995: 283-296). Two city- states which shall figure prominently in the consideration of the ivory trade are Alalakh and Ugarit. Alalakh is located in the Amuq Plain (also known as the Plain of Antioch), a region which was home to elephants and hippopotami, and has yielded a number of ivory artifacts. Ugarit, on the other hand, was a major trading center with specialized craft production in ivoryworking, metalworking, purple-dyed textiles, and furniture (often inlaid with ivory). The city’s port at Minet el-Beida channeled North Syrian goods to Cyprus and farther west, and acted as a major supplier of grain to the Hittites through Cilicia (Kuhrt 1995: 300-303). 6
Page 1 and 2: Tracing the Source of the Elephant
Page 3 and 4: Table of Contents List of Tables iv
Page 5 and 6: Mechanisms of Late Bronze Age trade
Page 7 and 8: List of Figures Figure 1. Morpholog
Page 9 and 10: Figure 35. Average δ 13 C values o
Page 11 and 12: Figure 69. KW 2557 (Hippopotamus tu
Page 13 and 14: “merchants” to a larger degree
Page 15 and 16: skeletal part to verify the presenc
Page 17: possibility of sophisticated scient
Page 21 and 22: urbanization at centers such as Enk
Page 23 and 24: incisors”) of the elephant. Each
Page 25 and 26: Dentine in elephant tusks is essent
Page 27 and 28: perpendicular to the tubules....[co
Page 29 and 30: Figure 3 : The incisors and canines
Page 31 and 32: for the elephant, is where the dent
Page 33 and 34: Chapter 3 The Archaeological, Histo
Page 35 and 36: pastoralism. Today most of the hipp
Page 37 and 38: emains in the Syro-Palestinian regi
Page 39 and 40: near Beersheba. An EB I lower right
Page 41 and 42: Figure 13: The distribution of Midd
Page 43 and 44: Figure 14: 18 th Dynasty Egyptian t
Page 45 and 46: Chapter 4 The Archaeological, Histo
Page 47 and 48: Figure 16: Present distribution of
Page 49 and 50: Maghreb was inaccessible or nonexis
Page 51 and 52: flooding and dense human population
Page 53 and 54: BCE), mentions imports of approxima
Page 55 and 56: The degree of contact between the L
Page 57 and 58: Minoan and Mycenaean sherds from th
Page 59 and 60: are lacking in North Africa, but th
Page 61 and 62: Part II: The Syrian Elephant Turnin
Page 63 and 64: Figure 22: Location of Ghab Valley
Page 65 and 66: elephants show a lower preference f
Page 67 and 68: similar to those of the African ele
Page 69 and 70:
Chapter 5 Ivory Workshops in the La
Page 71 and 72:
of the waste pieces may be reused f
Page 73 and 74:
ivory and silver (Odyssey XIX.55) a
Page 75 and 76:
century B.C. (LH I-LH IIIB), but th
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ivory from a burnt deposit in Thebe
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Tell Fakhariyah has only yielded ex
Page 81 and 82:
Figure 28: Comparison of utilizatio
Page 83 and 84:
Much of the discussion about Palest
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(Lilyquist 1998: 27; Gachet 1993: 7
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argues that for both of the types
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The End of Ivory-working in the LBA
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study residence and mobility. Katze
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feeding on the plant (Sukumar and R
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4‰ lower than those of marine pla
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Studies which have focused on evalu
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sediments in one area had isotopic
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local environment, and thus answer
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Figure 32: Sr concentrations plotte
Page 105 and 106:
Figure 34: 87 Sr/ 86 Sr vs. age of
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Chapter 7 Ecological and Dietary Re
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wide, straight lips of the hippo en
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unlikely that many were actually ea
Page 113 and 114:
proportion of C3 to C4 vegetation i
Page 115 and 116:
diet as interpreted from the stable
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had larger ranges than those elepha
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Tchamba and Seme (1993) likewise re
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fact adapted to the desert, and thi
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Table 2: δ 13 C values and % C4 fr
Page 125 and 126:
Figure 35: Average δ 13 C values o
Page 127 and 128:
Table 4: Percentage of C3 plants in
Page 129 and 130:
Table 5: Isotope values for Ambosel
Page 131 and 132:
Figure 39: “Carbon and nitrogen i
Page 133 and 134:
Table 6 (continued) 120
Page 135 and 136:
Figure 41: δ 13 C versus δ 15 N f
Page 137 and 138:
Figure 43: δ 13 C versus δ 15 N f
Page 139 and 140:
Figure 44: δ 13 C versus 87 Sr/ 86
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In conclusion, isotopic analysis ha
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(Ugarit/Ras Shamra). Only two studi
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fault and is filled with flood-basa
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Figure 49: Geologic and fault map o
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The Negev Desert in Southern Israel
Page 151 and 152:
The Eastern Mediterranean and the N
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and water and sediment from the Nil
Page 155 and 156:
Figure 55: Contour diagrams for the
Page 157 and 158:
Figure 56: The Sr isotope ratios in
Page 159 and 160:
Figure 58: Schematic diagram along
Page 161 and 162:
strontium data from Betton and Cive
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These flood basalts have 87 Sr/ 86
Page 165 and 166:
Figure 63: Map of the Libyan Desert
Page 167 and 168:
Table 7: Isotopic data of high-grad
Page 169 and 170:
Chapter 11 Analytical Procedures, S
Page 171 and 172:
Table 9: Collagen samples for analy
Page 173 and 174:
USF # Museum Catalog # Table 10: Ap
Page 175 and 176:
Figure 66: KW 1182 (Hippopotamus tu
Page 177 and 178:
Figure 70: KW 3842 (Elephant ivory)
Page 179 and 180:
Chapter 12 Results and Discussion R
Page 181 and 182:
d18O (apatite, per mil) 3 2 1 0 -1
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and hippopotami are grazers. To com
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fetched (with the Nile ≈ +2‰).
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opposed to the 2-3 mg required for
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international environment. The LBA
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ecause they were subject to taxatio
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were other ruling elites (Ratnagar
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scientific archaeometric angle and
Page 197 and 198:
Chapter 13 Conclusion and Suggestio
Page 199 and 200:
compare, the more unique the region
Page 201 and 202:
Aufderheide, A.C., Neiman, F.D., Wi
Page 203 and 204:
Caubet, A., and Poplin, F. 1993. La
Page 205 and 206:
Finley, M.I. 1981. Mycenaean palace
Page 207 and 208:
Horn, P., and Müller-Sohnius, D.,
Page 209 and 210:
Liebowitz, H. 1987. Late Bronze II
Page 211 and 212:
Price, T.D., Grupe, G., and Schröt
Page 213 and 214:
Sherratt, A., and Sherratt, S. 1991
Page 215 and 216:
van der Merwe, N. J., Lee-Thorp, J.
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