Groundwater in the Great Lakes Basin

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4. A Great Lakes enteric virus groundwater survey is needed. 5. New technologies including polymerase chain reaction should be used. 6. The role of septic tanks, leaky sewers and animal wastes in the contamination of groundwater should be assessed. In Ontario, septic tanks are currently regulated under the building code, with no mention of environment, nitrogen, pathogens or groundwater protection. Enforcement is delivered by the municipalities and building departments and therefore is highly variable across the province. 7. New groundwater treatment methods need to be developed and used. Standard chlorination treatment procedures of raw water for drinking purposes are limited in their ability to kill viruses. Filtration reduces viral load but does not kill viruses. Ultraviolet (UV) technologies are effective at destroying viruses in water that is not turbid. UV-C, specifically wavelength 254, is most suitable for the disinfection because it is the most effective against micro-organisms such as bacteria, fungi and viruses. The recent U.S. EPA Ground Water Rule requires a 4-log reduction in adenoviruses. It allows states to use UV reactors as part of their treatment systems, but currently real-time monitoring of treatment efficacy by this method is not available. The best protection requires real-time monitoring of treatment efficacy. REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY Abbaszadegan M., Stewart, P., & LeChevallier, M. (1999). Strategy for detection of viruses in groundwater by PCR. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 65(2), 444-449. Aruin, L.I. (1997). Helicobacter pylori infection is carcinogenic for humans. Archives of Pathology, 59, 74-78. American Society for Microbiology. (1999). Microbial Pollutants in Our Nation’s Water. Washington, D.C. American Water Works Association (AWWA). (1999). AWWA Manual of Water Supply Practices, Waterborne Pathogens AWWA M48. Denver, Colorado. Balbus, J.M., Embrey, M.A., & Parkin, R.T. (2002). Handbook of CCL Microbes in Drinking Water. American Water Works Association. Denver, Colorado. Balbus, J.M. & Embrey, M.A. (2002). Risk factors for waterborne enteric infections. Current Opinion in Gastroenterology, 18(1), 46-50. Bitton, G. (1999). Wastewater Microbiology. Wiley & Sons. New York. Bitton, G. & Gerba, C.P. (1984). Groundwater Pollution Microbiology. Wiley & Sons, New York. Blaser, M. (1996). The bacteria behind ulcers. Scientific American, 274, 104-107. Blaser, M.J. (1997). Epidemiologic and clinical features of Campylobacter jejuni infections. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 176, S103-S105. Blackburn, B.G., Craun, G.F., Yoder, J.S., Hill, V., Calderon, R.L., Chen, N., et al. (2004). Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks associated with drinking water – United States, 2001- 2002. MMWR Surveillance Summary, 53(8), 23-45. Blank, R. & Nasser, A. (1996). Effect of effluent quality and temperature on the persistence of viruses in soil. Water Science and Technology, 33, 237-242. Borchardt, M.A., Chyou, P., DeVries, E.O., & Belongia, E.A. (2003). Septic system density and infectious diarrhea in a defined population of children. Environmental Health Perspectives, 111 742-748. Borchardt, M.A., Bertz, P.D., Spencer, S.K., & Battigelli, D.A. (2003). Incidence of enteric viruses in groundwater from household wells in Wisconsin. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 69(2), 1172-1180. Borchardt, M.A., Haas, N.L., & Hunt, R.J. (2004). Vulnerability of drinking-water wells in LaCrosse, Wisconsin, to enteric-virus contamination from surface water contributions. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 70(10), 5937-5947. British Environment Agency. (2006). Underground, under threat. The state of groundwater in England and Wales. Retrieved March 16, 2007 from http://www.groundwateruk. org/html/whats_new.asp. Centers for Disease Control & Prevention. (2006, May). Healthy Housing Reference Manual. Chapter 10: On-site Wastewater Treatment. Retrieved March 22, 2006, from http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/publications/books/housing/2006_HHM_FINAL_front_matter.pdf. 31
32 Curriero, F.C., Patz, J.A., Rose, J.B., & Lele, S. (2001). The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948-1994. American Journal of Public Health, 91(8), 1194-1199. Craun, G.F. (1990). Causes of waterborne outbreaks in the United States. Water Scence and Technology, 22, 89-98. Environmental News Service. (2005, October 27). FDA Petitioned to Pull Common Products Containing Anti-Bacterial. Retrieved March 16, 2007 from http://www.ens-newswire. com/ens/oct2005/2005-10-27-09.asp#anchor2. Fong, T., Mansfield, L., Wilson, D.L., Schwab, D.J., Molloy, S.L., & Rose, J.B. (2007). Massive microbiological groundwater contamination associated with a waterborne outbreak in Lake Erie, South Bass Island, Ohio. Enivirontal Health Perspectives, Submitted. Fout, G.S., Martinson, B.C., Moyer, M.W., & Dahling, D.R. (2003). A multiplex reverse transcription-PCR method for detection of human enteric viruses in groundwater. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 69(6), 3158-3164. Gerba, C.P., Rose, J.B., & Haas, C.N. (1996). Sensitive populations: Who is at the greatest risk? International Journal of Food Microbiology, 30, 113-123. Gordon, C. & Toze, S. (2005). Influence of groundwater characteristics on the survival of enteric viruses. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 95, 536-544. Goss, M.J., Barry, D.A.J., & Rudolph, D.L. (1998). Contamination in Ontario farmstead domestic wells and its association with agriculture: 1. Results from drinking water wells. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology, 32, 267-93. Griffin, D.W., Lipp, E.K., McLaughlin, M.R., & Rose, J.B. (2002). Marine recreation and public health microbiology: Quest for the ideal indicator. BioScience, 51, 817-825. Guan, T.Y. & Holley, R.A. (2003). Pathogen survival in swine manure environments and transmission of human enteric illness – A review. Journal of Environmental Quality, 32, 383-392. Haas, C.H.., Rose, J.B., & Gerba, C.P. (eds). (1999). Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment. Wiley & Sons, New York. Hulten, K., Enroth, H., Nystrom, T., & Engstrand, L. (1998). Presence of Helicobacter species DNA in Swedish water. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 85, 282-286. International Joint Commission. (1918). Final Report for the International Joint Commission on the Pollution of Boundary Water Reference. Washington and Ottawa. Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office. International Joint Commission. (1993). Groundwater Contamination in the Great Lakes Basin. A summary report by Commission staff, Windsor, Ontario. John, D.E. & Rose, J.B. (2005). A review of factors affecting microbial survival in ground. Environmental Science and Technology, 39(19), 7345-7356. Ketley, J., Guerry, P., & Panigrahi, P. (1996). Pathogenic mechanisms. pp. 537-544 in: Newell, D.G., Ketley, J.M., & Feldman, R.A. (eds.). Campylobacters, Helicobacters, and Related Organisms. Plenum Press, New York. Kolb, E. (2006, July/August). Composting roadkilled deer. U.S. Department of Transportation. Public Roads, 70(1). Retrieved August 26, 2008 from http://www.tfhrc.gov/pubrds/06jul/02.htm. Krewski, D., Balbus, J., Butler-Jones, D., Haas, C., Isaac-Renton, J., Roberts, K J., & Sinclair, M. (2002). Managing health risks from drinking water – a report to the Walkerton inquiry. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. Part A, 65, 1635-1823. LeChevallier, M.W., Abbaszdegan, M., Camper, A.K., Izaguirre, G., Stewart, M., Naumovitz, D., Mardhall, M., Sterling, C.R., Payment, P., Rice, E.W., Hurst, C.J., Schaub, S., Slifko, T.R., Rose, J.B., Smith, H.V., & Smith, D.B. (1999). Emerging pathogens: Names to know and bugs to watch out for. Journal of the American Water Works Association, 91(9), 136-172. LeChevallier, M.W., Abbaszdegan, M., Camper, A.K., Izaguirre, G., Stewart, M., Naumovitz, D., Mardhall, M., Sterling, C.R., Payment, P., Rice, E.W., Hurst, C.J., Schaub, S., Slifko, T.R., Rose, J.B., Smith, H.V., & Smith, D.B. (1999). Committee report: Emerging pathogens: Viruses, protozoa and algal toxins. Journal of the American Water Works Association, 91(9), 110-121. Lee, S.H., Levy, D.A., Craun, G.F., Beach, M.J., & Calderon, R.L. (2002). Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks – United States, 1999-2000. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly, 51(SS-8), 1-47. Liang, J.L., Dziuban, E.J., Craun, G.F., Hill, V., Moore, M.R., Gelting, R.J., Calderon, R.L., Beach, M.J., & Roy, S.L. (2006). Surveillance for waterborne disease and outbreaks associated with drinking water and water not intended for drinking – United States, 2003-2004. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly, 55, 31-65. Locas, A., Barthe, C., Barbeau, B., Carriere, A. & Payment, P. (2007). Virus occurrence in municipal groundwater sources in Quebec, Canada. Canadian Journal of Microbiology, 53(6), 688-694. Lucena F., Ribas, F., Duran, A.E., Skraber, S., Gantzer, C., Campos, C., Moron, A., Calderon, E., & Jofre, J. (2006). Occurrence of bacterial indicators and bacteriophages infecting enteric bacteria in groundwater in different geographical areas. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 101(1), 96-102. Manafi, M. (1998). New approaches for the fast detection of indicators, in particular enzyme detection methods (EDM). In: Proc. OECD Workshop Interlaken ’98, pp. 1-16. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development and Switzerland. Mena, K.D., Gerba, C.P., Haas, C.N., & Rose, J.B. (2003). Risk Assessment of waterborne Coxsackievirus. Journal of the American Water Works Association, 95(7), 122-131. Millson M., Bokhout, M., Carlson, J., Spielberg, L., Aldis, R., Borczyk, A., & Loir, H.. (1991). An outbreak of Campylobacter jejuni gastroenteritis linked to meltwater contamination of a municipal well. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 82(1), 27-31. Moorehead, W.P., Gausparini, R., Donovon, C.A., Mathias, R.G., Cottle, R., & Baytalan, G. (1990). Giardiasis outbreak from a chlorinated community water supply. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 81, 358-63. Nasser, A.M. & Oman, S.D. (1999). Quantitative assessment of the inactivation of pathogenic and indicator viruses in natural water sources. Water Resources, 33, 1748-1752. Ohio Environmental Protection Agency. (2005). South Bass Island, Ottawa County GI Illness Summer 2004. Columbus, Ohio. Amended February 16, 2006.
Page 1 and 2: AReportoftheGreatLakesScienceAdviso
Page 3 and 4: Citation: Great Lakes Science Advis
Page 6: Commissioners’ Preface The Great
Page 9 and 10: 2 required to monitor basin groundw
Page 11 and 12: 4 Systems have a 30-year lifespan d
Page 13 and 14: 6 Groundwater quality is routinely
Page 15 and 16: 8 Transmittal Letter Groundwater/An
Page 17 and 18: 10 Acknowledgements, Activities and
Page 19 and 20: APPENDICES Appendices A through L p
Page 21 and 22: INTRODUCTION Groundwater, a major n
Page 23 and 24: 16 DESCRIPTION OF NATURAL SYSTEMS M
Page 25 and 26: that are not substantially affected
Page 27 and 28: Estimates of the Level and Extent o
Page 29 and 30: APPENDIX B Threats to Groundwater Q
Page 31 and 32: 24 PATHOGENS Bacteria, viruses and
Page 33 and 34: Viruses Viral pathogens continue to
Page 35 and 36: SPECIFIC EPISODES Walkerton In 2000
Page 37: 30 season. The sampling sites inclu
Page 41 and 42: Infection of a suitable host specie
Page 44 and 45: APPENDIX C Threats to Groundwater Q
Page 46 and 47: Road salt has significant toxic eff
Page 48 and 49: converted to nitrite in the human s
Page 50 and 51: Atrazine Atrazine is an extensively
Page 52 and 53: Wisconsin DNR keeps track of about
Page 54 and 55: Table 1. Chemical Contaminants in G
Page 56 and 57: isks for 23 diseases in six contigu
Page 58 and 59: Figure 1. Number* of waterborne-dis
Page 60 and 61: Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Wa
Page 62 and 63: APPENDIX D Threats to Groundwater Q
Page 64 and 65: Figure 1. Source: General Descripti
Page 66 and 67: (Gorman and Halvorsen, 2006). Any s
Page 68 and 69: Table 3. Washtenaw County, Michigan
Page 70 and 71: that the OWTS would last until it w
Page 72 and 73: REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY Aglie,
Page 74: Septic Tanks - Septic Tank Articles
Page 77 and 78: INTRODUCTION Leaking underground st
Page 79 and 80: sites that were previously closed,
Page 81 and 82: Table 1. USTs in Great Lakes States
Page 83 and 84: Estimation of Costs for Remediation
Page 85 and 86: Table 6. Operational Compliance of
Page 87 and 88: 80 Indiana Government. (2007, Febru
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82 GLOSSARY AST - above ground stor
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INTRODUCTION 84 Hazardous wastes ar
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The town of Kincardine, Ontario, ha
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88 • The monitoring and surveilla
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However, the U.S. EPA has been relu
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92 Johnson, B.L. & DeRosa, C.T. (19
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PAHs - Polycyclic aromatic hydrocar
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INTRODUCTION An abandoned well is d
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Figure 6: Leaking oil well Source:
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CONTAMINANT SOURCES 100 During any
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Nearly 16 million operational water
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• Development of a targeted progr
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106 Michigan Department of Environm
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APPENDIX H Threats to Groundwater Q
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far reaching. Road salt can inhibit
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112 Desalinization Potential water
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Gray, J. (2004, January). Brine Spr
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INTRODUCTION 116 In 2003 there were
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118 feed has increased to upwards o
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References and Bibliography 120 Arn
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APPENDIX J Threats to Groundwater Q
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for recreational purposes and destr
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126 errors (human or mechanical), p
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Apparent Losses Old meters are like
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Figure 6. Examples of Windsor, Onta
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REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY 132 Ada
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134 Levy, S. (2004, November 16). T
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APPENDIX K The Châteauguay Transbo
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138 the clay sediments of the St. L
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REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY Bureau
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INTRODUCTION 142 Groundwater law ac
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144 • Water withdrawn be returned
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146 found to be failing. Now, with
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Part 373: Third Stage Treatment Lag
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150 Chapter 1501:15 Soil and Water
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152 Title 29 - Water Resources Mana
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APPENDIX M List of Acronyms ADHD -
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Groundwater in the Great Lakes Basin

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