Taking action: achieving gender equality and empowering women

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Combat violence against women 115 Table 9.2 Estimated cost of violence against women, selected countries and regions Source: New South Wales 1991 for Australia; Greaves, Hankivsky, and Kingston- Riechers 1995 for Canada; and Korf and others 1997 for the Netherlands, as cited in Buvinic and Morrison 2000. Region New South Wales, Australia Total estimated cost (US$ million) Year Type of violence Costs included in estimate 1,000 1991 Domestic violence Individual, government, employer and third party—health care, legal, criminal justice, social welfare, employment, child care, and housing Canada 2,750 1995 Physical violence, sexual assault, rape, incest, child sexual abuse Netherlands 80 1997 Physical and sexual domestic violence against women Individual, government, and third party— social services and education, criminal justice, labor and work, health and medical Police and justice, medical, psychosocial care, labor and social security Nonmonetary costs include increased suffering, illness, and death; abuse of alcohol and drugs; and depression. A World Bank (1993) study estimated that annual rates of rape and domestic violence translated into 9 million years of disability-adjusted life years lost, including premature mortality as well as disability and illness. A study in Mexico City found violence to be the third most important cause of death among women (Lozano as cited in Morrison and Biehl 1999). The broader economic effects of violence against women—the economic multiplier effects—include increased absenteeism; decreased labor market participation; reduced productivity; lower earnings, investment, and savings; and lower intergenerational productivity. In Chile domestic violence reduced women’s earnings by $1.56 billion in 1996, or more than 2 percent of GDP; in Nicaragua earnings were reduced by $29.5 million, or 1.6 percent of GDP (Morrison and Orlando in Morrison and Biehl 1999). In both countries abused women earned far less than other women, controlling for a number of factors likely to affect earnings. Research conducted in India estimated that women lost an average of 7 working days after an incident of violence (ICRW 2000). Violence against women also affects their children’s schooling. A study in Nicaragua found that 63 percent of children of female victims of violence had to repeat a school year and left school an average of four years earlier than other children (Larraín, Vega, and Delgado 1997). Social multiplier effects include the impact of violence on interpersonal relations and quality of life, such as the effect on children of witnessing violence, a reduced quality of life, and reduced participation in democratic processes. Children who witness abuse, or who are victims themselves, tend to imitate and perpetuate that behavior (Larraín, Vega, and Delgado 1997). Women who have been abused by intimate partners are socially isolated, often at the partner’s insistence. This prevents a woman from participating in community and income-earning activities, but perhaps most important, it robs her of the social interaction that might help her end the abuse (Buvinic, Morrison, and Shifter as cited in Morrison and Biehl 1999).
116 Chapter 9 Interventions for combating violence against women The scale and complexity of gender-based violence means there are no uniform global solutions to this problem. Needed are multisectoral strategies that deal with the complex and intersecting dynamics that perpetuate violence against women. Great progress has been made in the last 10 years in addressing this issue. Documentary evidence reveals an extensive rage of interventions designed to prevent gender-based violence, to support survivors of abuse, and to punish perpetrators. The effectiveness of particular interventions is, however, less well documented. Moser and Moser (2003) classify current solutions by their objectives, level, and main type of intervention (table 9.3). Interventions may be separate gender-based violence initiatives or components of other sectoral programs. As with any categorization, these are ideal types. In reality, policymakers and practitioners are shifting toward more integrated approaches and are mainstreaming gender-based violence interventions into cross-sectoral violence reduction strategies. Human rights instruments In the past decade several international treaties have defined violence against women as a human rights violation. In an interpretative statement in 1992 the monitoring body of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women clarified that gender-based violence constituted discrimination and thus was covered under the convention (UN 1979), obliging signatories to report on measures to reduce gender-based violence. Table 9.3 Sector-level interventions to address genderbased violence Source: Moser and Moser 2003. Sector policy or program Human rights Objective in addressing gender-based violence Level of intervention Type of intervention Legal enforcement by states and other social actors International Global human rights documents and policies Criminal justice Deterrence and control National laws Gender-based violence laws Health Prevention and victim support National and municipal programs State and municipal programs Education Prevention and reduction National, municipal, and nongovernmental organizations Communitydriven development Conflict prevention and reconstruction Urban upgrading and infrastructure Victim support and empowerment Deterrence and reduction through reconstruction activities Deterrence and reduction through environmental improvements Community, through municipal and national programs International, national, and municipal Municipal Legal reform Conciliatory mechanisms Training of police and judiciary Women’s police stations Training and procedures Crisis services for victims Programs for perpetrators School-based education programs Communication campaigns Shelters and hotlines Peer partnerships Community-based protection UN guidelines Services for refugees Land use planning Transport Water and sanitation
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The UN Millennium Project is an ind
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Task Force on Hunger Halving hunger
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Foreword The world has an unprecede
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Contents Foreword iii Task force me
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Contents vii Chapter 12 Making it h
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Contents ix 4.1 HIV prevalence rate
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Task force members Task force coord
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Preface At the Millennium Summit in
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Acknowledgments The authors would l
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Abbreviations AGI CEDAW CRC DALY DD
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Millennium Development Goals xix
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2 Executive summary Achieving Goal
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4 Executive summary Gender inequali
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6 Executive summary Sexual and repr
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8 Executive summary The time spent
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10 Executive summary Several types
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12 Executive summary Employmentenha
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14 Executive summary Gender quotas
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16 Executive summary Infrastructure
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18 Executive summary Box 1 Proposed
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20 Executive summary A transformati
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22 Executive summary Women’s orga
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24 Executive summary The internatio
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26 Executive summary The next 10 ye
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28 Chapter 1 Genuine equality means
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Chapter 2 Task force perspective on
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32 Chapter 2 Box 2.2 Achieving the
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34 Chapter 2 The task force believe
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Chapter 3 Strengthen opportunities
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38 Chapter 3 Higher levels of educa
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40 Chapter 3 Female education can r
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42 Chapter 3 All regions except Sou
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44 Chapter 3 Table 3.4 Primary scho
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46 Chapter 3 Table 3.7 Enrollment r
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48 Chapter 3 Scholarship programs h
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50 Chapter 3 Decreasing the distanc
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52 Chapter 3 Support to literacy pr
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54 Chapter 4 Sexual and reproductiv
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56 Chapter 4 At the end of 2004 abo
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58 Chapter 4 Figure 4.1 Rates of ea
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60 Chapter 4 Interventions to impro
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62 Chapter 4 A critical priority is
Page 87 and 88: 64 Chapter 4 Schools can provide li
Page 89 and 90: Chapter 5 Invest in infrastructure
Page 91 and 92: 68 Chapter 5 Figure 5.2 Women are t
Page 93 and 94: 70 Chapter 5 Taking women’s perce
Page 95 and 96: 72 Chapter 5 Cost is often a constr
Page 97 and 98: 74 Chapter 5 and Elson 1995). If us
Page 99 and 100: 76 Chapter 6 Effective land rights
Page 101 and 102: 78 Chapter 6 Gathering systematic e
Page 103 and 104: 80 Chapter 6 In Sub-Saharan Africa
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Page 107 and 108: 84 Chapter 6 and recording women’
Page 109 and 110: 86 Chapter 6 At the international l
Page 111 and 112: Chapter 7 Reduce gender inequality
Page 113 and 114: 90 Chapter 7 In only 17 of 110 coun
Page 115 and 116: 92 Chapter 7 Table 7.3 Female share
Page 117 and 118: 94 Chapter 7 Gender gaps in earning
Page 119 and 120: 96 Chapter 7 An important strategy
Page 121 and 122: 98 Chapter 7 For poor women, public
Page 123 and 124: 100 Chapter 7 Many developed and de
Page 125 and 126: 102 Chapter 7 Decent, productive wo
Page 127 and 128: Chapter 8 Increase women’s repres
Page 129 and 130: 106 Chapter 8 Only 14 countries hav
Page 131 and 132: 108 Chapter 8 Experience offers fou
Page 133 and 134: Chapter 9 Combat violence against w
Page 135 and 136: 112 Chapter 9 Surveys often find th
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Page 141 and 142: 118 Chapter 9 Communities play an i
Page 143 and 144: 120 Chapter 9 Box 9.1 Mainstreaming
Page 145 and 146: Chapter 10 Data and indicators for
Page 147 and 148: 124 Chapter 10 Box 10.1 Proposed in
Page 149 and 150: 126 Chapter 10 The task force recom
Page 151 and 152: 128 Chapter 10 Improving countries
Page 153 and 154: Chapter 11 The financial costs of i
Page 155 and 156: 132 Chapter 11 A gender needs asses
Page 157 and 158: 134 Chapter 11 empower women. For e
Page 159 and 160: 136 Chapter 11 costs of setting up
Page 161 and 162: Chapter 12 Making it happen Althoug
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Page 165 and 166: 142 Chapter 12 Through legislation,
Page 167 and 168: 144 Chapter 12 The reporting obliga
Page 169 and 170: 146 Chapter 12 Box 12.2 Cambodia: t
Page 171 and 172: 148 Chapter 12 Box 12.3 Chile: the
Page 173 and 174: 150 Chapter 12 Box 12.5 South Afric
Page 175 and 176: 152 Chapter 12 Poverty reduction st
Page 177 and 178: 154 Chapter 12 The next 10 years pr
Page 179 and 180: 156 Appendix 1 illiterate, while th
Page 181 and 182: 158 Appendix 1 Box A1.1 Regional cl
Page 183 and 184: 160 Appendix 1 Table A1.3 Country p
Page 185 and 186: 162 Appendix 1 are likely to fall b
Page 187 and 188: 164 Appendix 1 Table A1.7 Female an
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166 Appendix 1 Table A1.8 Female an
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174 Appendix 1 Table A1.10 Adult fe
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176 Appendix 1 Table A1.10 Adult fe
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Appendix 2 Reproductive health stat
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Appendix 3 Employment statistics Ta
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182 Appendix 3 Table A3.2 Maternity
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184 Appendix 3 Table A3.2 Maternity
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186 Appendix 3 Table A3.3 Women’s
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188 Appendix 3 Table A3.3 Women’s
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190 Appendix 4 Table A4.1 Share of
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192 Appendix 4 Table A4.3 Results o
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Appendix 6 Summary of e-discussion
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200 Appendix 6 caveats to be consid
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202 Appendix 6 political opportunit
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204 Appendix 6 investment in infras
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206 Appendix 6 does not lower women
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208 Appendix 6 • Conduct public a
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210 Appendix 6 women—hardly a gen
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212 Appendix 6 commented on gender-
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214 Appendix 6 clear is the extent
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216 Notes from many different count
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218 Notes 5. A condition of such ow
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220 Notes 14. The pension is paid o
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222 Notes Chapter 11 1. Using data
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References Aboim, M. 2002. “Brazi
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226 References Aromolaran, A. 2002.
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228 References Bid, P., R. Nanavaty
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230 References Case, A., and A. Dea
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232 References ———. 2001. Emp
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234 References Floro, M. 1995. “E
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236 References Harding, S. 1996.
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238 References ———. 2000. “
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240 References Kaufmann, D., A. Kra
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242 References son-Kuhn, and J. Haa
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244 References Mladjenvoic, L., and
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246 References Ostro, B. J., M. San
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248 References Rehn, E., and E. Joh
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250 References Global Technical Con
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252 References UNAIDS. 2003a. Acces
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254 References United Nations Secre
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256 References ———. 1999. “
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