Orientalism - autonomous learning
Orientalism - autonomous learning
Orientalism - autonomous learning
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274 ORJENTALISM<br />
<strong>Orientalism</strong> Now<br />
275<br />
five attributes of Orientalist representation listed above distribute,<br />
and redistribute.<br />
Seen in such a way, Massignon is less a mythologized "genius"<br />
than he is a kind of system for producing certain kinds of statements,<br />
disseminated into the large mass of discursive formations<br />
that together make up the archive, or cultural material, of his time.<br />
I do not think that we dehumanize Massignon if we recognize this,<br />
nor do we reduce him to being subject to vulgar determinism. On<br />
the contrary, we will see in a sense how a very human being had,<br />
and was able to acquire more of, a cultural and productive capacity<br />
that had an institutional, or extrahuman, dimension to it: and this<br />
surely is what the finite human being must aspire to if he is not to<br />
be content with his merely mortal presence in time and space.<br />
. When Massignon said "nous sommes tous des semites" he was<br />
intlicating the range of his ideas over his society, showing the<br />
extent to which his ideas about the Orient could transcend the<br />
local anecdotal circumstances of a Frenchman and of French<br />
society. The category of Semite drew its nourishment out of<br />
Massignon's <strong>Orientalism</strong>, but its force derived from its tendency to<br />
extend out of the confines of the discipline, out into a broader<br />
history and anthropology, where it seemed to have a certain validity<br />
and power.89<br />
On one level at least, Massignon's formulations and his representations<br />
of the Orient did have a direct influence, if not an unquestioned<br />
validity: among the guild of professional Orientalists.<br />
As I said above, Gibb's recognition of Massignon's achievement<br />
constitutes an awareness that as an alternative to Gibb's own work<br />
(by implication, that is), Massignon was to be dealt with. I am of<br />
course imputing things to Gibb's obituary that are there only as<br />
traces, not as actual statements, but they are obviously important<br />
if we look now at Gibb's own career as a foil for Massignon's.<br />
Albert Hourani's memorial essay on Gibb for the British Academy<br />
(to which I have referred several times) admirably summarizes the<br />
man's career, his leading ideas, and the importance of his work:<br />
with Hourani's assessment, in its broad lines, I have no disagreement.<br />
Yet something is missing from it, although this lack is partly<br />
made up for in a lesser piece on Gibb, William Polk's "Sir Hamilton<br />
Gibb Between <strong>Orientalism</strong> and History."oo Hourani tends to view<br />
Gibb as the product of personal encounters, personal influences,<br />
and the like; whereas Polk, who is far less subtle in his general<br />
understanding of Gibb than Hourani, sees Gibb as the culmination<br />
of a specific academic tradition, what-to use an expression that<br />
does not occur in Polk's prose-we can call an academic-research<br />
consensus or paradigm.<br />
Borrowed in this rather gross fashion from Thomas Kuhn, the<br />
idea has a worthwhile relevance to Gibb, who as Hourani reminds<br />
us was in many ways a profoundly institutional figure. Everything<br />
that Gibb said or did, from his early career at London to the middle<br />
years at Oxford to his influential years as director of Harvard's<br />
Center for Middle Eastern Studies, bears the unmistakable stamp<br />
of a mind operating with great ease inside established institutions.<br />
Massignon was irremediably the outsider, Gibb the insider. Both<br />
men, in any case, achieved the very pinnacle of prestige and influence<br />
in French and Anglo-American <strong>Orientalism</strong>, respectively .<br />
Tlfe Orient .for Gibb was not a place one encountered directly;<br />
it was something one read about, studied, wrote about within the<br />
confines of learned societies, the university, the scholarly conference.<br />
Like Massignon, Gibb boasted of friendships with Muslims,<br />
but they seemed-like Lane's-to have been useful friendships, not<br />
determining ones. Consequently Gibb is a dynastic figure within<br />
the academic framework of British (and later of American)<br />
<strong>Orientalism</strong>, a scholar whose work quite consciously demonstrated<br />
the national tendencies of an academic tradition, set inside universities,<br />
governments, and research foundations.<br />
One index of this is that in his mature years Gibb was often<br />
to be met with speaking and writing for policy-determining<br />
organizations. In 1951, for instance, he contributed an essay to a<br />
book significantly entitled The Near East and the Great Powers,<br />
in which he tried to explain the need for an expansion in Anglo<br />
American programs of Oriental studies:<br />
... the whole situation of the Western countries in regard to the<br />
countries of Asia and Africa has changed. We can no longer rely<br />
on that factor of prestige which seemed to play a large part in<br />
prewar thinking, neither can we any longer expect the peoples of<br />
Asia and Africa or of Eastern Europe to come to us .and learn<br />
from us, while we sit back. We have to learn about them so that<br />
we can learn to work with them in a relationship that is closer to<br />
terms of mutuality.91<br />
The terms of this new relationship were spelled out later in"Area<br />
Studies Reconsidered." Oriental studies were to be thought of<br />
not so much as scholarly activities but as instruments of national<br />
policy towards the newly independent, and possibly intractable,