closures should be both in English and in the foreign language used in the threemarkets that the provider sends most of the remittances. 36Legislative TextInterestingly, various studies have found that increasing competition in themarketplace and other factors drove down the cost of remittance transfers, especiallyin the Latin American market, without the need for further regulation. 37Nevertheless, Congress adopted a new and comprehensive remittance law inthe Dodd-Frank Act, in order to “establish minimum protections for remittancessent by consumers in the United States to other countries.” 38 The legislation wasbased on the concern that senders of remittance transfers “face significant problemswith their remittance transfers, including being overcharged or not havingthe funds reach intended recipients.” 39Pursuant to section 1073 of the Dodd-Frank Act, before making a remittancetransfer to a foreign country, a remittance transfer provider 40 must disclose, atthe time when the consumer requests a remittance transfer, but prior to makingany payment:• the amount of currency to be received by the recipient in the currency tobe received;• the amount of any fees charged by the transfer provider; and• the exchange rate accurate to the one-hundredth of one percent. 4136 Id.37 See, e.g., Manuel Orozco, International Flow of <strong>Remittances</strong>: Cost, Competition and Financial Access in Latin Americaand the Caribbean—Toward an Industry Scorecard 4 (2006), available at http://tinyurl.com/Remittance-Flow(Technology may also be a driving factor). See also The World Bank, Global Economic Prospects: Economic Implicationsof <strong>Remittances</strong> and Migration 137–38 (2006); Electronic Fund Transfers ( Regulation E), 77 Fed. Reg. 6194, 6199(Feb. 7, 2012) (to be codified at 12 CFR Part 1005). The U.S. General Accountability Office (GAO) found that theaverage cost of sending remittances from the United States to Latin America ( particularly Mexico) declined from12.5 percent to 7 percent from 2003 to 2005, and where comparable to the fees charged by banks, credit unionsand the U.S. Postal Service. U.S. Gov’t Accountability Office, GAO-006-204, International <strong>Remittances</strong>, 3–4 (2005).38 S. Rep. No. 111-176, 176 Sec. 1076 at 179176 (2010).39 Id.40 Defined to include any institution that makes remittance transfers to a foreign country in the regular course ofbusiness. The CFPB regulation states that an institution is presumed not to meet this standard if it made less than100 transfers in the previous year, and continues to make less than 100 transfers in the current year.41 15 U.S.C. § 1693o-1(a)(2).Remittance Flows to Post-Conflict States: Perspectives on Human Security and Development 45
Following the payment of money to the remittance transfer provider, the customermust obtain:• a written receipt that includes all of the information disclosed before payment;• the promised date of delivery;• the name of the recipient;• a statement about consumer rights for error resolution; and• the state and federal agencies that regulate the provider. 42Disclosures must be in English and in each of the foreign languages principallyused by the remittance transfer provider, or any of its agents, to advertise,solicit, or market, either orally or in writing, at that office. 43 Disclosures must beaccurate when made, but the statute specifically provides that insured depositoryinstitutions may be allowed by the regulator to use reasonably accurateestimates for a limited period, ending on July 21, 2015, unless further extendedby regulations. 44REGULATORY IMPLEMENTATIONProposed and Final Rules Issued in 2012 and 2013The original regulatory proposal to implement section 1073 was drafted by theBoard of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, and published for commentby that agency on May 23, 2011. 45 On July 21, 2011, regulatory authority wastransferred to the CFPB. 46 This agency issued a final regulation and a series ofinterpretations implementing section 1073 of the Dodd-Frank Act on February7, 2012 (“February Final Rule”). 47 Prior to the rule going into effect, the Bureau42 Id.43 15 U.S.C. § 1693o1693O1693o-1(b). (2012).44 15 U.S.C. § 1693o-1(a)(4). (2012).45 Electronic Fund Transfers, 76 Fed. Reg. 29902 (proposed May 23, 2011) (to be codified at 12 CFR Part 205).46 Dodd-Frank Act, 12 U.S.C. § 5582 (authorized the Secretary of the Treasury to designate a specific date forthe transfer of consumer protection functions from the Federal banking agencies to the CFPB.). The Secretaryselected July 21, 2011 as the designated transfer date. 75 Fed. Reg. 57252-3533 (Sept. 20, 2010).47 Electronic Fund Transfers (Regulation E) 77 Fed. Reg. at 6194; Electronic Fund Transfers (Regulation E) 77 Fed.Reg. 50244, 50282 (Aug. 20, 2012) (to be codified at 12 CFR Part 1005) (The CFPB issued a modification to thefinal rule, establishing that a company that made less than 100 remittance transfers in a year was not covered bythe regulation. The August amendment also addressed compliance issues raised when remittance transfers arescheduled on a regular basis in advance).46 A <strong>Pardee</strong> Center Task Force <strong>Report</strong> | October 2013
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6. Transnational Remittances and De
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The Salvadoran Diaspora is very sig
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annually during the 1990s to less t
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Figure 2: Transnational Vicious Cyc
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The transnational vicious cycle not
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emittance flows is mixed, as initia
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individuals, communities, and famil
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areas. This issue can potentially b
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This is a breakthrough moment: afte
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Edwards, Sebastian and I. Igal Mage
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y La Distribucion Del Ingreso, 1st
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7. Remittances and Community Resili
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For quantitative data collection, a
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Remittances are perceived as playin
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the affected population. Internatio
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ReferencesAddleton, J. 1984. The im
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8. Filling the Gap in Health Staffi
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The alternative is for donors to se
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cians in the U.S. in 2000 (Clemens
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1. Remittances, Financial Inclusion
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networks, and communities. The role
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• In the present era of heightene
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the island of Kosrae, in the Federa
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and Sweden and has held visiting pr
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he organized a number of workshops
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Pardee Center Conference ReportsDev