The Origin and Evolution of Mammals - Moodle

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1 (a) 1. Perissodactyla 2. Titanotheriomorpha 3. Hippomorpha 4. Moromorpha 5. Isectolophidae 6. Chalicotherioidea 7. Tapiroidea 8. Rhinoceratoidea 4 2 3 5 6 7 8 ? (b) Radinskya Palaeosyops Hyracotherium Homogalax Litolophus Heptodon Hyracodon Brontops (c) Chalicotherium Figure 7.19 Perissodactyla. (a) Cladogram of main groups of perissodactyls showing occlusal views of upper teeth (from various sources). (b) Skeleton of the titanotheriomorph Brontops. (Moder 1998, from Osborn 1929) Height at shoulder approx. 2.5 m. (c) Skeleton of the Miocene chalicothere Chalicotherium (Coombs 1989 from Zapfe).
262 THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF MAMMALS The Equoidea also radiated in the Eocene, particularly in Europe where Palaeotherium was a common, superficially tapir-like browsing animal. However, a second major radiation followed in the Miocene, centred in North America but with representatives throughout Europe, and dominated by grazing forms with hypsodont teeth culminating in the modern genus Equus (McFadden 1992, 1998). The third major lineage of perissodactyls are the Moromorpha, which is the most diverse. The chalicotheres were another group of bizarre perissodactyls (Coombs 1998). Although present in the Eocene, their major radiation occurred in the Miocene, when large body size evolved, along with retractable claws in place of hooves. Moropus was like a very large horse with its forelimbs somewhat longer than the hindlimbs. This trend reached its culmination in the European and African Chalicotherium Fig. 7.19(c)), in which the forelimbs were about 50% longer than the hindlimbs and the animal must have been capable of standing on its hindlegs to pull down branches from quite large trees. Chalicotheres survived into the Pleistocene of Asia and Africa and indeed there have been occasional, unsubstantiated reports from Kenya of sightings of a living chalicothere (Savage and Long 1986). Rhinocerotoids were far more diverse from the Eocene through the Miocene than they are now. In addition to the familiar horned rhinoceroses of today, they included small, agile, dog-sized browsers, semiaquatic hippo-like grazers, tapirlike forms, and gigantic forms capable of browsing on high trees (Prothero and Schoch 1989). Hyrachyus is the earliest and most primitive rhinocerotoid, abundant throughout North America and Eurasia during the Early Eocene. The indricotheres were a purely Oligocene Asian group of huge mammals, amongst which is included Paraceratherium, variously referred to in the past as Indricotherium and Baluchitherium. It was a strictly quadrupedal, graviportal animal but with a height reaching over 6 m, a 1.3 m long skull, and a body weight estimated at around 30 tonnes, it was capable of browsing on leaves and twigs well above the reach of any other mammals of its day. By the Late Oligocene and through the Miocene, the true rhinoceroses radiated and became an abundant part of the ungulate population of all the northern continents and Africa (Heissig 1989). The final group of perissodactyls to mention are the tapirs, the sister group of the rhinocerotoids. As with perissodactyls as a whole, the paucity of modern species, no more than four in this case, is a small echo of a once much more diverse group (Schoch 1989; Holbrook 2001). The greatest diversity of tapiroids occurred during the Eocene, when there was an abundance of genera across Eurasia and North America. They remained conservative, browsing forms and their only remarkable feature was a tendency to evolve a proboscis, or short trunk. Cetartiodactyla Despite the difference between living whales and the even-toed ungulates, there is overwhelming molecular evidence that the former are taxonomically nested within the latter. As it happens, the fossil evidence is also tending to point to this conclusion. The first known cetartiodactyls are the Early Eocene ‘Dichobunidae’, almost certainly a paraphyletic group including relatives of more than one of the subsequent lineages (Gentry and Hooker 1988; Stucky 1997). Diacodexis (Fig. 7.20(c)) is the most completely preserved of these. It was a rabbitsized mammal occurring in Eurasia and North America. Despite its small size, the long, slender limbs, and digitigrade stance indicate a cursorially adapted form and the single most characteristic artiodactyl feature (Fig. 7.20(b)), an astragalus with pulley-shaped articulating surfaces for the tibia above and the rest of the foot below was present (Rose 1982, 1987). This arrangement effectively defines what is termed the paraxonic foot, in which the main axis runs between digits three and four. The dentition, and indeed the skull generally of Diacodexis, was little advanced from the ‘condylarth’ grade and gives little away about the origin of the artiodactyls. An earlier proposal by Van Valen (1971) that they were related to the arctocyonid ‘condylarths’ has received little support (Rose 1987; Prothero et al. 1988; Thewissen and Domning 1992). From this Early Eocene start, the artiodactyls radiated into around 20 families (Fig. 7.20(a)), including the ten that are usually recognised
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The Origin and Evolution of Mammals
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The Origin and Evolution of Mammals
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Preface This book arose from twin a
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For Mal /gosia with love and thanks
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Contents 1 Introduction The definit
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CHAPTER 1 Introduction There are ab
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transversely occluding molar teeth
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the Mesozoic mammals, is to do with
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a hierarchy of committees under the
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it means that a 200 Ma igneous rock
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een a more fundamental impact than
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Table 2.3 Classification of marsupi
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(a) (b) (c) humerus radius aquatic
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(a) Westlothiana Limnoscelis PO Wes
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the ankle bones to form an astragal
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(b) (c) (a) Casea rutena Casea broi
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(Fig. 3.2(f)), is actually an ophia
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the first one is enlarged, often to
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Even at their initial appearance in
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(a) Nikkasaurus (b) (d) Reiszia (e)
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Nikkasauridae The family Nikkasauri
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has figured large in discussions of
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(c) Figure 3.9 (continued). Syodon
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a mixture of progressively more spe
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animal with interdigitating, but no
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(e) (a) Anomocephalus Ulemica (b) S
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mandibulae musculature. This, as in
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To date the postcranial skeleton of
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ecognised four subgroups, based mai
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the presence of a deep, longitudina
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collected from the Lystrosaurus Ass
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(a) (d) (c) (b) Leontocephalus V PA
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(a) (c) Lycosuchus Oliveria (d) EVO
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separate families. Lycosuchidae (Fi
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consist of a large labial cusp and
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Procynosuchus (d) Procynosuchus (a)
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They constitute the monophyletic gr
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Although there is no mammal-like co
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Cynognathidae Cynognathus (Fig. 3.2
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(e) (f) Figure 3.22 (continued). Ma
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(c) (d) (a) (b) Kayentatherium EVOL
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Pachygenelus (e) (a) (c) Therioherp
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palatal, and orbitosphenoid bones,
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Wible and Hopson 1993). The interor
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published a cladogram based on rece
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310-320 Ma. By this time, the great
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are forms such as Casea itself, var
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lakes and swamps in the low-lying l
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urrowing and subsisting on a diet o
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Eothyris Haptodus sphenacodontine B
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z (a) (c) a.pt.m. M B PO P P SQ P M
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(b) a.pt.m. temp.m. a.pt.m. temp.m.
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the dentary bone above the level of
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the therocephalian grade was not on
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A balance was also achieved in the
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Locomotion Ancestral amniote grade
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screw-shaped: the front part faces
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For the recovery phase, the relativ
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SC PRC p.i.f.i tr.min (c) dp.cr ect
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the therocephalian pelvis and hindl
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spc s.sp s.sp SC PRC (d) delt T AST
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no significant novelties to what ha
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(a) (c) (e) (g) D D ex. au.m C tym
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(a) (c) (d) PMX (f) V n.turb mx.tur
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ol.b (a) (b) cer.hem gorgonopsian t
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(a) (b) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) a g
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cold stress, the part that usually
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conducted the experiment of wrappin
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mammals themselves that the enlarge
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elevation of maximum aerobic activi
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a mammal. The difficulty with all s
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collection, ingestion, and assimila
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were edaphosaurid and caseid pelyco
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CHAPTER 5 The Mesozoic mammals The
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(a) (d) AL condylar foramina are se
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evidence to relate the haramiyidans
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postcranial skeleton, and Graybeal
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side of the head can be in action a
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the lower molars is relatively high
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morganucodontan teeth. However, des
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adjacent lower molars. A small exte
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(a) (b) (d) P4 P4 Plagiaulax P4 Pau
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American Morrison Formation genus C
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a self-sharpening property. As the
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near parasagittal gait (Fig. 5.11(e
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pass through the birth canal. Relat
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(a) 1 (b) (d) me (c) me.d 3 styl st
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(a) (c) Henkelotherium Crusafontia
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pubis is excluded from the acetabul
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Cretaceous, (Aptian or Albian) of M
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eautifully preserved placentals fro
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subsequent specimens revealed that
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Minimal divergence of tribosphenida
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(c) (a) M 1 M 1 M 2 Steropodon M 2
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(b) (a) (c) pa.d pr.d me.d Ambondro
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crown-group therians) is accepted b
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form of the tooth, must reflect sub
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of feasibility that a taxon of endo
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mammals, by creating environmental
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the 11 species of marsupial, of whi
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(d) (a) pa A Dasyuromorphia B C pr
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earing two huge claws on digits thr
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that contains the independent ances
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(b) (d) (a) Glasbius Alphadon (c) D
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elieved to be Late Cretaceous in ag
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(Fig. 6.5(c)). The dentition exhibi
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(d) Figure 6.6 (continued). Thylaco
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(a) (c) Caroloameghina and Procarol
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(a) (e) (d) Proargyrolagus Groeberi
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(a) (b) Djarthia Thylacotinga (c) (
Page 222 and 223: LIVING AND FOSSIL MARSUPIALS 211 M
Page 224 and 225: Extinct Notoryctemorphia At present
Page 226 and 227: (f) (g) Wakaleo Diprotodon optatum
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Page 232 and 233: the Diprotodontia also included gen
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Page 236 and 237: effectively absent. However, increa
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Page 240 and 241: and Prokennalestes, although it doe
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Page 246 and 247: (a) (d) (e) (g) Protoungulatum Meso
Page 248 and 249: (a) (f) (e) Hyopsodus Phenacodus (d
Page 250 and 251: Titanoides (pantodont) (a) (c) (b)
Page 252 and 253: (a) (b) (d) Trogosus (tillodont) Es
Page 254 and 255: Mioclaenus Paulacoutoia (didolodont
Page 256 and 257: their presence. The five orders may
Page 258 and 259: Xenungulata. Only two Late Palaeoce
Page 260 and 261: (a) (b) (d) (c) Oxyaena Patriofelis
Page 262 and 263: continuously growing, and form a gr
Page 264 and 265: navicular facet, 19 or more thoraci
Page 266 and 267: (a) (c) Phosphatherium Numidotheriu
Page 268 and 269: coexist with other characters that
Page 270 and 271: The salient feature of Widanelfasia
Page 274 and 275: (a) (b) BUNODONTIA or SUIFORMES SUI
Page 276 and 277: time, which suggests that it was on
Page 278 and 279: condition. This particular combinat
Page 280 and 281: etween Primates, Dermoptera (colugo
Page 282 and 283: have postcranial adaptations for ar
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Page 286 and 287: indisputably to occur prior to the
Page 288 and 289: The Late Cretaceous mammal record i
Page 290 and 291: interordinal divergences in the Lat
Page 292 and 293: diversity on Earth (Janis 1993). Fu
Page 294 and 295: effect of the surrounding sea. Trop
Page 296 and 297: was high. It lasted from 5 to 3 Ma
Page 298 and 299: and thus remain in their preferred
Page 300 and 301: agreement about exactly when within
Page 302 and 303: References Abdala, F. Redescription
Page 304 and 305: Ax, P. 1987. The phylogenetic syste
Page 306 and 307: Bramble, D. M. 1978. Origin of the
Page 308 and 309: Colbert, E.H. 1948. The mammal-like
Page 310 and 311: Duvall, D. 1986. A new question of
Page 312 and 313: Gow, C.E. 1980. The dentitions of t
Page 314 and 315: Ivakhnenko, M.F. 1990. The late Pal
Page 316 and 317: Kemp, T.S. 1988a. A note on the Mes
Page 318 and 319: cladogenesis in dasyurid marsupials
Page 320 and 321: (eds) Evolution of Tertiary mammals
Page 322 and 323:
McKenna, M.C. and Bell, S.K. 1997.
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(ed) The phylogeny and classificati
Page 326 and 327:
Ray, S. 2000.Endothiodont dicynodon
Page 328 and 329:
Rubidge, B.S., Kitching, J.W., and
Page 330 and 331:
Simpson, G.G. 1970. The Argyrolagid
Page 332 and 333:
Thewissen, J.G.M. 1990. Evolution o
Page 334 and 335:
Novacek, M.J., and McKenna, M.C. (e
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Index Note: Page numbers in italics
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Equoidea 262 Equus 262 Erethizon 28
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Overkill hypothesis 289, 290 Oxyaen
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Tulerpeton 14, 18 Tylopoda 264 Ukha
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The Origin and Evolution of Mammals - Moodle

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