The Origin and Evolution of Mammals - Moodle

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etween Primates, Dermoptera (colugos), and Scandentia (tree shrews), which formed part of the old supraordinal taxon Archonta. However, the anatomy of neither fossil nor living forms has ever offered support for either excluding the bats, or including the rodents and lagomorphs with them, as is now indicated by molecular evidence. Primates The fossil record of primates (Fig. 7.23) is notoriously very poor because they are largely arboreal, forest-dwelling animals, and the early members at least were all small in size (Taveré et al. 2002). On the other hand, the degree of effort devoted to finding them and the level of attention given to their interpretation tends to mitigate their sparseness. The Plesiadapiformes (page 232) used to be regarded as the most primitive primates, indicating a very early, immediately post-Cretaceous origin for the order, followed by a radiation through the Palaeocene resulting in at least five plesiadapiform families, distributed in North America and Europe. However, the lack of such fundamental primate characters as a postorbital bar, shortened snout, or opposable hallux and pollex eventually led most authors to exclude Plesiadapiformes from the order, interpreting them instead as basal archontans, with the possible relationship to Dermoptera mentioned later (p272). The issue has re-emerged recently with the description by Block and Boyer (2003a,b) of a more or less complete skeleton of the carpolestid plesiadapiform Carpolestes (Fig. 7.5(b)), showing it does in fact possess opposable, nailbearing first digits. Their phylogenetic analysis has carpolestids as the sister-group of what they term the Euprimates, and they conclude that plesiadapiforms ought to be included in the order Primates after all. Kirk et al. (2003) are unconvinced and believe that the postcranial similarities are convergences in two separate lineages of arboreal euarchontan mammals. Living primates fall into two informal categories. The ‘prosimians’ are the primitive primates and include lemurs, galagos, lorises, and tarsiers. They retain a series of ancestral characters, including a small brain, a long snout, and a postorbital bar that is not expanded to enclose the back of the orbit. The incisors are rounded rather than spatulate and LIVING AND FOSSIL PLACENTALS 269 the symphysis of the mandible is unfused. The anthropoids are advanced primates and consist of the monkeys and apes. ‘Prosimii’ is a paraphyletic group because it is based entirely on ancestral characters; using derived characters demonstrates that some prosimians are basal to the anthropoids. Two monophyletic groups are now recognised. The lemurs, galagos, and lorises are the Strepsirhini, characterised by the presence of a grooming toothcomb formed from the compressed lower incisors and canines. The tarsiers and anthropoids are the Haplorhini, characterised, amongst other features, by loss of the moist rhinarium on the nose and cleft upper lip, loss of the tapetum lucidum, and presence of a haemochorial placenta. ‘Prosimian’ grade primates first appear in the earliest Eocene, and there followed immediately an Eocene radiation throughout the northern continents, that produced several distinct lineages. The relationships of the Eocene to the modern ‘prosimian’ groups are far from clear, but most authors accept that both the strepsirhines and the haplorhines were represented, and that the latter had already divided into the tarsier and the anthropoid lineages (Covert 2002). All were relatively small, and arboreal, and variously had insectivorous and frugivorous diets. Adapiformes are first represented by dentitions and partial skulls of Cantius (Fig. 7.23b), from the earliest Eocene of Europe and North America. They had unspecialised incisors and non-shearing molars, suggesting a primarily frugivorous diet. Later forms were generally quite large for Eocene primates. Notharctus, for example, had an estimated weight of 7 kg (Gebo 2002) and proportions resembling a lemur. A number of characters suggest that adapiforms are strepsirhines (Kay et al. 1997; Ross et al. 1998). These include the lemuriform-like structure of the ear region, with a ring-shaped ectotympanic bone within the tympanic cavity, and similarities in the bones of the hand and the foot. The Omomyoidea are the second group of primates to occur in the Early Eocene of Europe and North America. Teilhardina was only about 70 g in estimated body weight, and no omomyoid was larger than a squirrel. Their unspecialised dentition suggests that insects formed an important part of the diet, and at least some members of the family
PLIOCENE- HOLOCENE MIOCENE OLIGOCENE EOCENE PALAEOCENE CRET. 5 23 35 56 OLD WORLD NEW WORLD TARSIERS HUMANS CHIMPANZEES GORILLAS ORANG-UTANS GIBBONS LORISES LEMURS MONKEYS MONKEYS 65 Millions of years ago Mesopithecus SCANDENTIA Tree shrews Afrotarsius Australopithecus Oreopithecus Sivapithecus ? Kenyapithecus Victoriapithecus Nyanzapithecus Prohylobates Necrolemur DERMOPTERA Flying lemurs ? Rooneyia Apidium ? OMOMYIDS Eosimias Shoshonius Phenacolemur Plesiadapis ? ? ? Proconsul ? Catopithecus Teihardina Purgatorius Pliopithecus Aegyptopithecus Amphipithecus & Pondaungia Smilodectes Tetonius ARCHAIC PRIMATES EARLY INSECTIVORES ? ? ? Dolichocebus EARLIEST TRUE PRIMATES Branisella EARLY CATARRHINES ADAPIDS Cebupithecia Adapis Notharctus Cantius Figure 7.23 (a) Phylogeny of primates (modified after Simons 1992). (b) Occlusal views of the lower and upper cheek teeth of Cantius (Gebo 2002) ? (b)
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The Origin and Evolution of Mammals
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The Origin and Evolution of Mammals
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Preface This book arose from twin a
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For Mal /gosia with love and thanks
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Contents 1 Introduction The definit
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CHAPTER 1 Introduction There are ab
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transversely occluding molar teeth
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the Mesozoic mammals, is to do with
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a hierarchy of committees under the
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it means that a 200 Ma igneous rock
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een a more fundamental impact than
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Table 2.3 Classification of marsupi
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(a) (b) (c) humerus radius aquatic
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(a) Westlothiana Limnoscelis PO Wes
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the ankle bones to form an astragal
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(b) (c) (a) Casea rutena Casea broi
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(Fig. 3.2(f)), is actually an ophia
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the first one is enlarged, often to
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Even at their initial appearance in
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(a) Nikkasaurus (b) (d) Reiszia (e)
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Nikkasauridae The family Nikkasauri
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has figured large in discussions of
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(c) Figure 3.9 (continued). Syodon
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a mixture of progressively more spe
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animal with interdigitating, but no
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(e) (a) Anomocephalus Ulemica (b) S
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mandibulae musculature. This, as in
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To date the postcranial skeleton of
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ecognised four subgroups, based mai
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the presence of a deep, longitudina
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collected from the Lystrosaurus Ass
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(a) (d) (c) (b) Leontocephalus V PA
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(a) (c) Lycosuchus Oliveria (d) EVO
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separate families. Lycosuchidae (Fi
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consist of a large labial cusp and
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Procynosuchus (d) Procynosuchus (a)
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They constitute the monophyletic gr
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Although there is no mammal-like co
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Cynognathidae Cynognathus (Fig. 3.2
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(e) (f) Figure 3.22 (continued). Ma
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(c) (d) (a) (b) Kayentatherium EVOL
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Pachygenelus (e) (a) (c) Therioherp
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palatal, and orbitosphenoid bones,
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Wible and Hopson 1993). The interor
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published a cladogram based on rece
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310-320 Ma. By this time, the great
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are forms such as Casea itself, var
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lakes and swamps in the low-lying l
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urrowing and subsisting on a diet o
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Eothyris Haptodus sphenacodontine B
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z (a) (c) a.pt.m. M B PO P P SQ P M
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(b) a.pt.m. temp.m. a.pt.m. temp.m.
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the dentary bone above the level of
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the therocephalian grade was not on
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A balance was also achieved in the
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Locomotion Ancestral amniote grade
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screw-shaped: the front part faces
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For the recovery phase, the relativ
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SC PRC p.i.f.i tr.min (c) dp.cr ect
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the therocephalian pelvis and hindl
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spc s.sp s.sp SC PRC (d) delt T AST
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no significant novelties to what ha
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(a) (c) (e) (g) D D ex. au.m C tym
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(a) (c) (d) PMX (f) V n.turb mx.tur
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ol.b (a) (b) cer.hem gorgonopsian t
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(a) (b) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) a g
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cold stress, the part that usually
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conducted the experiment of wrappin
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mammals themselves that the enlarge
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elevation of maximum aerobic activi
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a mammal. The difficulty with all s
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collection, ingestion, and assimila
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were edaphosaurid and caseid pelyco
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CHAPTER 5 The Mesozoic mammals The
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(a) (d) AL condylar foramina are se
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evidence to relate the haramiyidans
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postcranial skeleton, and Graybeal
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side of the head can be in action a
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the lower molars is relatively high
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morganucodontan teeth. However, des
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adjacent lower molars. A small exte
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(a) (b) (d) P4 P4 Plagiaulax P4 Pau
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American Morrison Formation genus C
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a self-sharpening property. As the
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near parasagittal gait (Fig. 5.11(e
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pass through the birth canal. Relat
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(a) 1 (b) (d) me (c) me.d 3 styl st
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(a) (c) Henkelotherium Crusafontia
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pubis is excluded from the acetabul
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Cretaceous, (Aptian or Albian) of M
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eautifully preserved placentals fro
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subsequent specimens revealed that
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Minimal divergence of tribosphenida
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(c) (a) M 1 M 1 M 2 Steropodon M 2
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(b) (a) (c) pa.d pr.d me.d Ambondro
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crown-group therians) is accepted b
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form of the tooth, must reflect sub
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of feasibility that a taxon of endo
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mammals, by creating environmental
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the 11 species of marsupial, of whi
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(d) (a) pa A Dasyuromorphia B C pr
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earing two huge claws on digits thr
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that contains the independent ances
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(b) (d) (a) Glasbius Alphadon (c) D
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elieved to be Late Cretaceous in ag
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(Fig. 6.5(c)). The dentition exhibi
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(d) Figure 6.6 (continued). Thylaco
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(a) (c) Caroloameghina and Procarol
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(a) (e) (d) Proargyrolagus Groeberi
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(a) (b) Djarthia Thylacotinga (c) (
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LIVING AND FOSSIL MARSUPIALS 211 M
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Extinct Notoryctemorphia At present
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(f) (g) Wakaleo Diprotodon optatum
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fossil mammals, which might help cl
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Page 248 and 249: (a) (f) (e) Hyopsodus Phenacodus (d
Page 250 and 251: Titanoides (pantodont) (a) (c) (b)
Page 252 and 253: (a) (b) (d) Trogosus (tillodont) Es
Page 254 and 255: Mioclaenus Paulacoutoia (didolodont
Page 256 and 257: their presence. The five orders may
Page 258 and 259: Xenungulata. Only two Late Palaeoce
Page 260 and 261: (a) (b) (d) (c) Oxyaena Patriofelis
Page 262 and 263: continuously growing, and form a gr
Page 264 and 265: navicular facet, 19 or more thoraci
Page 266 and 267: (a) (c) Phosphatherium Numidotheriu
Page 268 and 269: coexist with other characters that
Page 270 and 271: The salient feature of Widanelfasia
Page 272 and 273: 1 (a) 1. Perissodactyla 2. Titanoth
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Page 276 and 277: time, which suggests that it was on
Page 278 and 279: condition. This particular combinat
Page 282 and 283: have postcranial adaptations for ar
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Page 286 and 287: indisputably to occur prior to the
Page 288 and 289: The Late Cretaceous mammal record i
Page 290 and 291: interordinal divergences in the Lat
Page 292 and 293: diversity on Earth (Janis 1993). Fu
Page 294 and 295: effect of the surrounding sea. Trop
Page 296 and 297: was high. It lasted from 5 to 3 Ma
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Page 300 and 301: agreement about exactly when within
Page 302 and 303: References Abdala, F. Redescription
Page 304 and 305: Ax, P. 1987. The phylogenetic syste
Page 306 and 307: Bramble, D. M. 1978. Origin of the
Page 308 and 309: Colbert, E.H. 1948. The mammal-like
Page 310 and 311: Duvall, D. 1986. A new question of
Page 312 and 313: Gow, C.E. 1980. The dentitions of t
Page 314 and 315: Ivakhnenko, M.F. 1990. The late Pal
Page 316 and 317: Kemp, T.S. 1988a. A note on the Mes
Page 318 and 319: cladogenesis in dasyurid marsupials
Page 320 and 321: (eds) Evolution of Tertiary mammals
Page 322 and 323: McKenna, M.C. and Bell, S.K. 1997.
Page 324 and 325: (ed) The phylogeny and classificati
Page 326 and 327: Ray, S. 2000.Endothiodont dicynodon
Page 328 and 329: Rubidge, B.S., Kitching, J.W., and
Page 330 and 331:
Simpson, G.G. 1970. The Argyrolagid
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Thewissen, J.G.M. 1990. Evolution o
Page 334 and 335:
Novacek, M.J., and McKenna, M.C. (e
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Index Note: Page numbers in italics
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Equoidea 262 Equus 262 Erethizon 28
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Overkill hypothesis 289, 290 Oxyaen
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Tulerpeton 14, 18 Tylopoda 264 Ukha
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The Origin and Evolution of Mammals - Moodle

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