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counts as its most influential champions the same multinational corporations that emerged out of and for the suburbanized, reurbanized, and deregulated middle-class economics–driven conditions; conditions that enforced segregation and persecution in the first place. 53 This is the nature of many contemporary structural contradictions. In its seemingly pragmatic focus on middle-class economics, the CEA’s oft-repeated narrative ultimately makes today’s most pressing problem more, not less, difficult to understand. Inequality is complex, and complex stories are not easy to tell. Given its continued emphasis on homeownership, the story of “the American Dream” shows how design—traditionally brought in as a solution to problems—helps elucidate them as well. Unfortunately, in this elucidation, the agents of design themselves are often implicated. 1. “GINI index (World Bank Estimate),” The World Bank, accessed June 15, 2015, http:// data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI; “OECD Income Distribution Database (IDD): Gini, Poverty, Income, Methods and Concepts,” Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, accessed June 15, 2015, http://www.oecd.org/social/ income-distribution-database.htm; “Income: Narrative (Middle Class),” U.S. Census Bureau, accessed June 15, 2015, http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/data/inequality/middleclass.html. 2. OECD, Better Life Initiative: Compendium of OECD Well-Being Indicator, OECD, 2011. 3. The criteria range from housing, to civic engagement, to work-life balance. Through a web-based interactive tool, “Your Better Life Index,” users can weigh the criteria according to what’s important to them, and then compare their country’s to other countries’ performance. www.oecd.org/betterlifeindex. 4. Sarah Burd-Sharps and Kristen Lewis, Geographies of Opportunity: Ranking Well-Being by Congressional District, The Measure of America Series of the Social Science Research Council, April 2015, www.measureofamerica.org/congressional-districts-2015. 5. The United States, too, uses an absolute measure to define a poverty level, mainly to determine eligibility for certain government programs. It builds on a definition set up by the Department of Agriculture in 1963/64, which multiplies the cost of adequate nutrition/ food by three. See “Frequently Asked Questions Related to the Poverty Guidelines and Poverty,” U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, accessed April 24, 2015, http:// aspe.hhs.gov/poverty/faq.cfm#share. 6. “Visualize Inequality,” The World Bank, accessed June 15, 2015, http://www1.worldbank. org/poverty/visualizeinequality/. 7. “The Census Bureau does not have an official definition of the ‘middle class,’ but [it] does derive several measures related to the distribution of income and income inequality. These are the shares of aggregate income received by households (or other income recipient units such as families) and the Gini index (or index of income concentration).” “Income: Narrative (Middle Class),” U.S. Census Bureau, accessed August 10, 2015, http:// www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/data/inequality/middleclass.html. 8. “Nearly nine out of 10 people consider themselves middle class, as a recent survey by the Pew Research Center found, regardless of whether their incomes languish near the poverty line or skim the top stratum of earners.” Pew Research Center, “Most Say Government Policies Since Recession Have Done Little to Help Middle Class, Poor,” March 2015, cited in Patricia Cohen, “Middle Class but Feeling Economically Insecure,” New York Times, April 11, 2015. 9. “It is not my purpose to police dictionaries of linguistic usage. When it comes to designating social groups, everyone is right and wrong at the same time. Everyone has good reasons for using certain terms but is wrong to denigrate the terms used by others. My definition of “middle class” (as the “middle” 40 percent [of total income]) is highly contestable, since the income (or wealth) of everyone in the group is, by construction, above the median for the society in question. . . . [T]he definition I have given seems to me to correspond more closely to common usage: the expression ‘middle class’ is generally used to refer to people who are doing distinctly better than the bulk of the population yet still a long way from the true ‘elite.’ Yet all such designations are open to challenge, and there is no need for me to take a position on this delicate issue, which is not just linguistic but also political.” Thomas Piketty, Capital in the Twenty-First Century (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014), 251. 10. This is an excerpt from the mission statement of the PAC Right to Rise, which was founded by former Florida Governor Jeb Bush, who declared his candidacy for the Republican nomination on June 15, 2015. “What we Believe,” Right to Rise, accessed June 15, 2015, https://righttorisepac.org/what-we-believe/. 11. This is an excerpt from Hillary Clinton’s website Hillary for America. The former Secretary of State declared her candidacy for the Democratic nomination for president on April 12, 2015. “The Four Fights: Building an economy for tomorrow, ” Hillary for America, accessed June 15, 2015, https://www.hillaryclinton.com/the-four-fights/economy-of-tomorrow/. 12. This is quoted from “Transcript: Freedom Partners Forum: Ted Cruz, Rand Paul and Marco Rubio in Conversation with ABC’s Jonathan Karl.” ABC News, January 26, 2015, http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/transcript-freedom-partners-forum-ted-cruz-randpaul/story?id=28491534. Florida Senator Marco Rubio announced his candidacy for the Republican nomination for president on April 13, 2015, about four months after this forum took place. 13. This is an excerpt from the website of New Hampshire Senator Bernie Sanders who announced his candidacy for the Democratic nomination for president on May 26, 2015. “Issues: Income and Wealth Inequality,” Bernie 2016, accessed June 15, 2015, https:// berniesanders.com/issues/income-and-wealth-inequality/. 14. Council of Economic Advisers (CEA), Economic Report of the President (Washington, D.C., 2015), https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/docs/cea_2015_erp_complete.pdf. 15. In the CEA Report, “well-being” appears in seven places, not always economically speaking. In fact it seems to be one of the principal semantic routes out of economics and into broader discussions (or at least hints therein) for the authors. Re: Middle Class, see page 29: “The ultimate test of an economy’s performance is the well-being of its middle class”. 16. CEA, Report, 29. 17. Timothy Mitchell, “Economentality: How the Future Entered Government,” Critical Inquiry 40, no. 4: 483. It is telling that the section of the Employment Act of 1946 that authorized the CEA doesn’t use the noun “economy” once; instead, the qualifier “economic” is used repeatedly. 18. In 1950, 59 percent of housing units in the U.S. were located in metropolitan areas; 59 percent of these units were in central cities and 41 percent in suburbs. By 1973, 67 percent of housing units were in metropolitan areas; 47 percent of these were in central cities and 53 percent were in suburbs. See U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1976 (97th ed.), Table No. 1269: Housing Units, by Geographic Region: 1950 to 1974 (Washington, D.C., 1976). 19. Manuel Aalbers and Brett Christophers, “Centring Housing in Political Economy,” Housing, Theory and Society 31, no. 4 (2014): 376. 20. Incomes rose among all economic classes between 1947 and 1979. See, for instance, Peter Dreier, John Mollenkopf, and Todd Swanstrom. Place Matters: Metropolitics for the Twenty-First Century, 3rd ed. (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2014), 16. 21. Pew Research Center, Fewer, Poorer, Gloomier: The Lost Decade of the Middle Class (Washington, D.C.: Pew Social & Demographic Trends, 2012), 59. http://www.pewsocialtrends. org/files/2012/08/pew-social-trends-lost-decade-of-the-middle-class.pdf. 56 57
22. U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstracts Section 31: 20th Century Statistics, Table No. 1428: Housing Units – Historical Trends for Selected Characteristics: 1940 to 1997 (Washington, D.C., 1999), accessed June 5, 2015, https://www.census.gov/prod/ 99pubs/99statab/sec31.pdf. 23. Among other factors, increased access to pensions also played a role in this growth in wealth, which reached a high of 36 percent in 1986 before eventually declining to 23 percent in 2012. Emmanuel Saez and Gabriel Zucman, “Wealth Inequality in the United States since 1913: Evidence from Capitalized Income Tax Data,” NBER Working Paper 20625 (2014), accessed June 5, 2015, http://gabriel-zucman.eu/files/SaezZucman2014.pdf. 24. CEA, Report, 31. 25. For a general history of suburbanization and its racial components, see Kenneth Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985). 26. For histories of restrictive covenants, see Marc Weiss, The Rise of the Community Builders: The American Real Estate Industry and Urban Land Planning (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987); Richard R.W. Brooks and Carol M. Rose, Saving the Neighborhood: Racially Restrictive Covenants, Law, and Social Norms (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013). 27. “African-Americans were frozen out of the greatest wealth building opportunities in American history. From the Homestead Act in the 1860s, to education and homeownership opportunities provided by the GI Bill and the Federal Housing Administration, to redlining through contemporary discrimination in housing markets, to the segregation tax on housing appreciation, major government sponsored wealth building opportunities helped foster America’s middle class and created much wealth. Meanwhile, these same policies and practices left the African-American community behind at the starting gate. Inheritance of our racial past thus becomes an integral part of the wealth narrative.” Thomas M. Shapiro, “Race, Homeownership and Wealth,” Washington University Journal of Law & Policy 20 (2006): 67–68. 28. U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1973 (94th ed.), Table No. 1167: Occupied Housing Units – Tenure, and Population per Occupied Unit, by Race of Household Head and by Residence: 1900 to 1970 (Washington, D.C., 1973). 29. Dreier et al., Place Matters, 129. 30. Though the 1949 Housing Act authorized the construction of 810,000 units of public housing by 1955, only 320,000 had been constructed by 1960. Raymond A. Mohl, “Shifting Patterns of American Urban Policy since 1900,” Arnold R. Hirsch and Raymond A. Mohl, eds. Urban Policy in Twentieth Century America (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1993), 15. 31. Richard Rothstein, “Race and Public Housing: Revisiting the Federal Role,” Poverty & Race 21, no. 6 (2010): 1–16. 32. For histories of this trajectory, see Bradford D. Hunt, Blueprint for Disaster: The Unraveling of Chicago Public Housing (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009) and Lawrence J. Vale, Purging the Poorest: Public Housing and the Design Politics of Twice-Cleared Communities (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013). 33. Susan S. Fainstein, “Feminism and Planning: Theoretical Issues,” in Gender and Planning: A Reader, eds. Susan S. Fainstein and Lisa J. Servon, 120–138 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2005). 34. CEA, Report, 31. 35. Sandra J. Newman, “Housing Allowances American Style: The Housing Choice Voucher Program” Housing Allowances in a Comparative Perspective, ed. P.A. Kemp (Bristol: Policy Press, 2007), 87–106. 36. Reagan cut the budget for public and Section 8 housing by half in his first year in office alone. Dreier et al., Place Matters, 154. 37. For histories of this shift toward policies promoting home-ownership for low-income households, see for example, Michael Harloe, The People’s Home? Social Rented Housing in Europe & America (New York: Wiley, 1995); Peter Malpass, Housing and the Welfare State: The Development of Housing Policy in Britain (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2005). 38. “From 1973 to 2009, the state and federal prison populations that are the main focus of this study rose steadily, from about 200,000 to 1.5 million, declining slightly in the following 4 years. In addition to the men and women serving prison time for felonies, another 700,000 are held daily in local jails. . . . The U.S. penal population of 2.2 million adults is the largest in the world. . . . The U.S. rate of incarceration, with nearly 1 of every 100 adults in prison or jail, is 5 to 10 times higher than rates in Western Europe and other democracies. . . . The growth in incarceration rates in the United States over the past 40 years is historically unprecedented and internationally unique.” Jeremy Travis, Bruce Western, and F. Stevens Redburn, The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences (Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press, 2014), 1–2. 39. H.A. Thompson, “Why Mass Incarceration Matters: Rethinking Crisis, Decline, and Transformation in Postwar American history,” The Journal of American History 97, no. 3 (2010): 703–734. 40. The inequalities produced by high incarceration rates among African American men is often called “invisible inequality” as this population is isolated from mainstream society while incarcerated and often not counted in conventional measures of unemployment. Bruce Western and Becky Pettit, “Incarceration and Social Inequality,” Daedalus 139, no. 3 (2010): 8–19. 41. CEA, Report, 31–32. 42. In 1996, the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) was introduced to reduce previous entitlements while instituting work requirements for welfare recipients. The number of recipients decreased by 58 percent between 1995 and 2010; and in 2010, only a quarter of children living in poverty lived in households receiving cash transfers. Dreier et al., Place Matters, 290. 43. Alex F. Schwartz, Housing Policy in the United States, 1st ed. (New York: Routledge, 2006), 236. 44. Joint Center for Housing Studies, The State of the Nation’s Housing 2004 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 2004), 16. 45. Sub-prime loans accounted for 28 percent of refinancing loans to these borrowers in 2001. Joint Center for Housing Studies, The State of the Nation’s Housing 2004, 19. 46. Ibid. 47. Debbie Gruenstein Bocian and Robert G. Quercia, Lost Ground, 2011: Disparities in Mortgage Lending and Foreclosures (Center for Responsible Lending, 2011), 4, http://www. responsiblelending.org/mortgage-lending/research-analysis/Lost-Ground-2011.pdf. Further, in 2000, high-income black households were more likely to receive subprime refinanced loans (35 percent) than low-income white households (24 percent). Schwartz, Housing Policy in the United States, 237. 48. Dreier et al., Place Matters, 38-47. 49. The poverty threshold is established by the U.S. Census Bureau. Elizabeth Kneebone and Alan Berube, “Confronting Suburban Poverty in America: Executive Summary,” Metropolitan Policy Program at Brookings, 2013, accessed June 7, 2015, http://confrontingsuburbanpoverty.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/Brookings_Toolkit_Executive-Summary. pdf. 50. Audrey Singer, Migration and the Metropolis (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution: 2013). http://www.brookings.edu/research/articles/2013/04/migration-metropolis-singer. 51. Michael Kelly, “The 1992: The Democrats – Clinton and Bush Compete to Be Champion of Change; Democrat Fights Perceptions of Bush Gain,” New York Times, October 31, 1992. 52. See Will Steffen, Paul J. Critzen, John R. McNeill, “The Anthropocene: Are Humans Now Overwhelming the Great Forces of Nature?” AMBIO 36 (December 2007): 614–621. 53. New York Times Editorial Board, “Big Business’s Critical Role on Anti-Gay Laws,” New York Times, April 4, 2015. For more detailed information about this case, see the court’s final decision for Obergefell v Hodges” at http://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/14pdf/14-556_3204.pdf. 58 59
Page 1 and 2: In 2013, in the United States, the
Page 3 and 4: The Temple Hoyne Buell Center for t
Page 5 and 6: Preface The Art of Inequality: Arch
Page 7 and 8: Introduction What is inequality? Or
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Page 11 and 12: 1.1 Defining Inequality Jacob Moore
Page 13 and 14: ership rate, this became especially
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Page 17 and 18: 1.1.4 Race in Place Since the late
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Page 29: additional direct provision of aid
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3.2.4 lative frenzies drive up asse
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3.2.5 Real Estate Finance & Investm
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3.3 Schools developments in the fie
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1964 1967 1970s ject field (with
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1996 Stephen E. Roulac, Roulac Glob
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25. James A. Graaskamp, “Redefini
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3.4.2 600 Harrison Avenue, Boston,
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3.4.4 TerraSol, Salt Lake City, UT
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1. In the foreword to a publication
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dictionary of real estate terms glo
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Appendix 214 215
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Botein, Hilary. “New York State H
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Glaeser, Edward. “There are Worse
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Kopczuk, Wojciech, Emmanuel Saez, a
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Renner, Andrea. Housing Diplomacy:
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Weiss, Marc A. “Researching the H
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1939 1937 1934 1933 1932 FHA DENIES
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