ARCHITECTURE

22. U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstracts Section 31: 20th Century Statistics, Table No.
1428: Housing Units – Historical Trends for Selected Characteristics: 1940 to 1997
(Washington, D.C., 1999), accessed June 5, 2015, https://www.census.gov/prod/
99pubs/99statab/sec31.pdf.
23. Among other factors, increased access to pensions also played a role in this growth in
wealth, which reached a high of 36 percent in 1986 before eventually declining to 23
percent in 2012. Emmanuel Saez and Gabriel Zucman, “Wealth Inequality in the United
States since 1913: Evidence from Capitalized Income Tax Data,” NBER Working Paper
20625 (2014), accessed June 5, 2015, http://gabriel-zucman.eu/files/SaezZucman2014.pdf.
24. CEA, Report, 31.
25. For a general history of suburbanization and its racial components, see Kenneth Jackson,
Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York: Oxford University
Press, 1985).
26. For histories of restrictive covenants, see Marc Weiss, The Rise of the Community Builders:
The American Real Estate Industry and Urban Land Planning (New York: Columbia
University Press, 1987); Richard R.W. Brooks and Carol M. Rose, Saving the Neighborhood:
Racially Restrictive Covenants, Law, and Social Norms (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, 2013).
27. “African-Americans were frozen out of the greatest wealth building opportunities in
American history. From the Homestead Act in the 1860s, to education and homeownership
opportunities provided by the GI Bill and the Federal Housing Administration, to
redlining through contemporary discrimination in housing markets, to the segregation
tax on housing appreciation, major government sponsored wealth building opportunities
helped foster America’s middle class and created much wealth. Meanwhile, these same
policies and practices left the African-American community behind at the starting gate.
Inheritance of our racial past thus becomes an integral part of the wealth narrative.”
Thomas M. Shapiro, “Race, Homeownership and Wealth,” Washington University Journal
of Law & Policy 20 (2006): 67–68.
28. U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1973 (94th ed.), Table
No. 1167: Occupied Housing Units – Tenure, and Population per Occupied Unit, by Race
of Household Head and by Residence: 1900 to 1970 (Washington, D.C., 1973).
29. Dreier et al., Place Matters, 129.
30. Though the 1949 Housing Act authorized the construction of 810,000 units of public
housing by 1955, only 320,000 had been constructed by 1960. Raymond A. Mohl, “Shifting
Patterns of American Urban Policy since 1900,” Arnold R. Hirsch and Raymond A. Mohl,
eds. Urban Policy in Twentieth Century America (New Brunswick: Rutgers University
Press, 1993), 15.
31. Richard Rothstein, “Race and Public Housing: Revisiting the Federal Role,” Poverty &
Race 21, no. 6 (2010): 1–16.
32. For histories of this trajectory, see Bradford D. Hunt, Blueprint for Disaster: The Unraveling
of Chicago Public Housing (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009) and Lawrence
J. Vale, Purging the Poorest: Public Housing and the Design Politics of Twice-Cleared
Communities (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013).
33. Susan S. Fainstein, “Feminism and Planning: Theoretical Issues,” in Gender and Planning:
A Reader, eds. Susan S. Fainstein and Lisa J. Servon, 120–138 (New Brunswick, NJ:
Rutgers University Press, 2005).
34. CEA, Report, 31.
35. Sandra J. Newman, “Housing Allowances American Style: The Housing Choice Voucher
Program” Housing Allowances in a Comparative Perspective, ed. P.A. Kemp (Bristol: Policy
Press, 2007), 87–106.
36. Reagan cut the budget for public and Section 8 housing by half in his first year in office
alone. Dreier et al., Place Matters, 154.
37. For histories of this shift toward policies promoting home-ownership for low-income
households, see for example, Michael Harloe, The People’s Home? Social Rented Housing
in Europe & America (New York: Wiley, 1995); Peter Malpass, Housing and the Welfare
State: The Development of Housing Policy in Britain (New York: Palgrave MacMillan,
2005).
38. “From 1973 to 2009, the state and federal prison populations that are the main focus of
this study rose steadily, from about 200,000 to 1.5 million, declining slightly in the following
4 years. In addition to the men and women serving prison time for felonies, another
700,000 are held daily in local jails. . . . The U.S. penal population of 2.2 million adults is
the largest in the world. . . . The U.S. rate of incarceration, with nearly 1 of every 100 adults
in prison or jail, is 5 to 10 times higher than rates in Western Europe and other democracies.
. . . The growth in incarceration rates in the United States over the past 40 years is
historically unprecedented and internationally unique.” Jeremy Travis, Bruce Western,
and F. Stevens Redburn, The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes
and Consequences (Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press, 2014), 1–2.
39. H.A. Thompson, “Why Mass Incarceration Matters: Rethinking Crisis, Decline, and
Transformation in Postwar American history,” The Journal of American History 97, no. 3
(2010): 703–734.
40. The inequalities produced by high incarceration rates among African American men is
often called “invisible inequality” as this population is isolated from mainstream society
while incarcerated and often not counted in conventional measures of unemployment.
Bruce Western and Becky Pettit, “Incarceration and Social Inequality,” Daedalus 139,
no. 3 (2010): 8–19.
41. CEA, Report, 31–32.
42. In 1996, the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) was introduced to reduce
previous entitlements while instituting work requirements for welfare recipients. The
number of recipients decreased by 58 percent between 1995 and 2010; and in 2010, only
a quarter of children living in poverty lived in households receiving cash transfers. Dreier
et al., Place Matters, 290.
43. Alex F. Schwartz, Housing Policy in the United States, 1st ed. (New York: Routledge,
2006), 236.
44. Joint Center for Housing Studies, The State of the Nation’s Housing 2004 (Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University, 2004), 16.
45. Sub-prime loans accounted for 28 percent of refinancing loans to these borrowers in
2001. Joint Center for Housing Studies, The State of the Nation’s Housing 2004, 19.
46. Ibid.
47. Debbie Gruenstein Bocian and Robert G. Quercia, Lost Ground, 2011: Disparities in Mortgage
Lending and Foreclosures (Center for Responsible Lending, 2011), 4, http://www.
responsiblelending.org/mortgage-lending/research-analysis/Lost-Ground-2011.pdf.
Further, in 2000, high-income black households were more likely to receive subprime
refinanced loans (35 percent) than low-income white households (24 percent). Schwartz,
Housing Policy in the United States, 237.
48. Dreier et al., Place Matters, 38-47.
49. The poverty threshold is established by the U.S. Census Bureau. Elizabeth Kneebone and
Alan Berube, “Confronting Suburban Poverty in America: Executive Summary,” Metropolitan
Policy Program at Brookings, 2013, accessed June 7, 2015, http://confrontingsuburbanpoverty.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/Brookings_Toolkit_Executive-Summary.
pdf.
50. Audrey Singer, Migration and the Metropolis (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution:
2013). http://www.brookings.edu/research/articles/2013/04/migration-metropolis-singer.
51. Michael Kelly, “The 1992: The Democrats – Clinton and Bush Compete to Be Champion
of Change; Democrat Fights Perceptions of Bush Gain,” New York Times, October 31, 1992.
52. See Will Steffen, Paul J. Critzen, John R. McNeill, “The Anthropocene: Are Humans Now
Overwhelming the Great Forces of Nature?” AMBIO 36 (December 2007): 614–621.
53. New York Times Editorial Board, “Big Business’s Critical Role on Anti-Gay Laws,”
New York Times, April 4, 2015. For more detailed information about this case, see the
court’s final decision for Obergefell v Hodges” at http://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/14pdf/14-556_3204.pdf.
58 59