Cesar2000-Economics of Coral Reefs.pdf

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REFERENCES Anderson, R. C., Waheed, Z., Rasheed, M., & Arif, A., (1992) Reef fish resources survey in the Maldives — Phase II. BOBP/ WP/80 – MDV/88/007. 54 pp. Andersson, J., (1997) “The value of coral reef for the current and potential tourism industry on Unguja Island, Zanzibar”. In: Johnstone, R. W., Francis, J., & Mohando, C., (eds.) Coral Reefs: Values, Threats and Solutions. Proceedings of the National Conference on Coral Reefs, Zanzibar, Tanzania. pp. 82–90. Anonymous. 1998a. Fisheries in Maldives 1983–1997. A descriptive analysis. Anonymous. 1998b. Basic Fisheries Statistics Jan–Dec 1998. Economic planning and co-ordination section, Ministry of Fisheries and Agriculture, Male. 18 pp. Bakus, G. J., (1994) Coral reef ecosystems. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. New Delhi. 232 pp. CMFRI (1980) Marine Fisheries Information Service, No. 22. 22 pp. CMFRI (1995) Marine Fisheries Information Service, No 136. 31 pp. Darwall, W. R. T., & Guard, M., (in press) “Southern Tanzania”. In: McClanahan, T. R., Sheppard, C. R. C., & Obura, D. O., (eds.) Coral reefs of the Indian Ocean: their ecology and conservation. Oxford University Press. pp. 131–166 Dayaratne, P., Lindén, O., & De Silva, M. W. R., (1995) “Puttalam Lagoon and Mundal Lake, Sri Lanka: A study of coastal resources, their utilization, environmental issues and management options”. Ambio Vol. 24 No. 7–8. Devaraj, M., (1997) Status of research in marine fisheries and mariculture — Role of CMFRI. CMFRI special report No. 67. 39 pp. DOD & SAC (1997) Coral reefs of the Indian Coast. SAC/RSA/ RSAG/DOD-COS/SN/16/97 report. Space Application Centre Ahmedabad India. 54 pp. Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) (1999a) FAOSTAT online database. www.fao.org Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) (1999b) Number of Fishers 1970–1996. United Nations, Rome. 124 pp. Glynn, P. W., Imai, R., Sakai, K., Nakano, Y., & Yamazato, K., (1993) “Experimental responses of Okinawan (Ryukyu Islands, Japan) reef corals to high temperature and UV radiation”. Proc. 7th Int. Coral Reef Symp. 1: 27. Goreau, T. J., & Hayes, R. L., (1994) “Coral bleaching and ocean ‘Hot Spots’”. Ambio 23: 176–180. Hoegh-Guldberg, O., (1999) “Climate change, coral bleaching and the future of the world’s coral reefs”. Mar. Fresh. Res. 50: 839–866. James, P. S. B. R., Parameswaran Pillai, P., & Jayaprakesh, A. A., (1984) “Some observations on the fisheries of Lakshadweep”. CFRMI Bulletin 43: 25–32. Jennings, S., Grandcourt, E. M., & Polunin, N. V. C., (1995) “The effects of fishing on the diversity, biomass and trophic structure of seychelles’ reef fish communities”. Coral reefs 14: 225–235. Lindén, O., & Sporrong, N., (eds.) 1999. Coral reef degradation on the Indian Ocean. Status reports and project presentations 1999. CORDIO, Stockholm, Sweden. 108p. McClanahan, T. R., (in press) “Coral reef use and conservation”. In: McClanahan, T. R., Sheppard, C. R. C., & Obura, D. O. (eds.) Coral reefs of the Indian Ocean: their ecology and conservation. Oxford University Press. 526 pp. Naim, O., Cuet, P., & Mangar, V., (in press) “The Mascarene Island”s. In: McClanahan, T. R., Sheppard, C. R. C. & Obura, D. O. (eds.) Coral reefs of the Indian Ocean: their ecology and conservation. Oxford University Press. pp. 353–381. NARA (1999) Sri Lanka Fisheries Yearbook 1998. NARA Crow island Colombo, Sri Lanka, 57 pp. Semesi, A. K., (1998) “Mangrove management and utilisation in eastern Africa”. Ambio 27: 620–626. Shakeel, H., & Ahmed, H., (1997) “Exploitation of reef resources: grouper and other food fishes”. In: Nickerson, D. J. & Maniku, M. H., (eds.) Proceedings of the workshop on integrated reef resources management in the Maldives. BOBP/REP/76. pp. 117–135. Souter, D., Obura, D., & Lindén, O. (2000) Coral Reef Degradation in the Indian ocean. CORDIO 2 nd Status Report. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (1998). Human Development Indicators, 1998. UNDP, Nairobi. 262 pp. Warner, M., & Fitt, W. K., (1991) “Mechanisms of bleaching of zooxanthellate symbioses”. Am. Zool. 31 (5): 28A. Westmacott, S., Cesar, H., Pet-Soede, L., & de Schutter, J., (2000) Assessing the socio-economic impacts of the coral reef bleaching in the Indian Ocean. A report to the World Bank African Environment Department. Draft. Wilkinson, C. R., (ed.) (1998) Status of coral reefs of the world: 1998. Australian Institute of Marine Science and Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network, Townsville, Australia. Wilkinson, C. R., Lindén, O., Cesar, H. S. J., Hodgson, G., Rubens, J., & Strong, A. E., (1999) “Ecological and socioeconomic impacts of the 1998 coral mortality in the Indian Ocean: An Enso impact and a warning of future change”. Ambio 28: 188–196. World Travel and Tourism Council (1999) 1999 Travel and Tourism Satellite Accounting Research Estimates and Forecasts. WTTC. Young, S. K. T., (1989) “Coastal resources management in the ASEAN region: Problems and directions”. In: Chua, T.-E., & Pauly, D., (eds) Coastal Area Management in Southeast Asia: Policies, Management Strategies and Case Studies. ICLARM Contribution No. 543 xi. 106
Economic Implications of Fully-Protected Marine Reserves for Coral Reef Fisheries LYNDA D. RODWELL & CALLUM M. ROBERTS ABSTRACT Overexploitation of coral reefs causes species loss, stock collapses and habitat degradation and remains a major challenge for fisheries scientists and managers alike. To counter these, fully-protected marine reserves, areas closed to fishing and other harmful human activities represent an essential component of coral reef fisheries management. They overcome many of the management complexities of coral reefs, such as lack of data and enforcement, and provide vital opportunities for unhindered growth of fish stocks and protection of coral communities. Their role in conserving biodiversity and protecting habitat is undisputed. The degree to which fullyprotected marine reserves can benefit fisheries, however, remains uncertain. A number of bioeconomic studies have attempted to assess the contribution of these marine reserves to fish biomass, catch levels and the present value of the fishery. They suggest that fishery enhancement by reserves will be significant. Habitat protection by reserves makes a vital, but as yet poorly appreciated contribution to fishery enhancement. We argue that this protection has many positive effects on habitat that will lead to increased standing stocks and productivity of reef fishes. Such effects are rarely considered in economic models but could have overriding importance for long-term fishery production. Fully-protected reserves have many benefits beyond fisheries that can also help compensate for the costs of establishment. We conclude that fishery sustainability for coral reef fisheries cannot be attained without the contribution of fully-protected marine reserves. 1. INTRODUCTION There are now well over 1300 marine protected areas in the world (Kelleher et al. 1995) and new ones are being established faster than ever before. However, there is a growing recognition that many of them fail to provide adequate protection against one of the key threats to marine biodiversity: fishing (NRC 1995; McArdle 1997; Roberts 1998a). Studies of the effects of fishing on marine ecosystems reveal that it has a profound and far reaching impact at all levels, from the largest predators through to the most humble mud-dwelling invertebrates (Roberts 1995; Safina 1998). For this reason, there has been a blossoming of interest in a particular class of protected area — the fully-protected marine reserve — an area closed to all forms of fishing and other extractive and harmful uses (Ballantine 1995). The complexity of coral reef fisheries has defied some of the best efforts to manage them using conventional approaches of limitations on catch or effort (Munro 1996). The theoretical construct of ‘optimal’ fishery management, management that holds fish stocks at their supposed maximum level of production, is impossible to achieve on coral reefs (or elsewhere) due to ecological and fishery complexity, and a lack of information and enforcement powers. Fully-protected reserves represent a promising alternative that overcomes many of the problems of managing multispecies, coral reef fisheries. They 107
Page 2 and 3:
Collected Essays on the Economics o
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Table of Contents Acknowledgements
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Foreword Corals and coral reefs hav
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● ● ● ● assessing the threa
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fishing is lucrative from the indiv
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Coral Reefs: Their Functions, Threa
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Table 1. Ecosystem functions and co
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Figure 1. Yield of Trochus Shells i
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Figure 2. Total Economic Value and
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Table 3. Total Net Benefits and Los
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Table 5. Valuation Techniques used
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people live from the Park, the high
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duction or logging) would have an e
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Hatcher, B. G., Johannes, R. E., &
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Thorhaug, A., (1992) “Oil Spills
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Authors Threats Mgt. Description Is
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Assessing the Benefits of Improving
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2.2 Coral Reef Quality Change and t
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Five groups were given and the resp
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The total sample mean was similar a
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one of the five categories were nex
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4.4 Protecting Rights and the Desir
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able for tourists versus locals was
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problem that where respondents are
Page 54 and 55: turists who regularly handle soil e
Page 56 and 57: expanding tourist industry based on
Page 58 and 59: ism and fisheries. Logging activiti
Page 60 and 61: Table 2. Fisheries gross revenue an
Page 62 and 63: an ‘Environmentally Critical Area
Page 64 and 65: 25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 5,000 0
Page 66 and 67: sized animals — even at the most
Page 68 and 69: greater willingness among environme
Page 70 and 71: stroyed was 7.5 fish times 0.19 ope
Page 72 and 73: were affected by cyanide squirts fo
Page 74 and 75: Russ, G. R., (1991) “Coral reef f
Page 76 and 77: eefs that are not too remote, can n
Page 78 and 79: Table 2. Estimated net income (US$/
Page 80 and 81: Table 4. Results of base case and t
Page 82 and 83: ating the destruction of its coral
Page 84 and 85: creased. Besides these direct effec
Page 86 and 87: 3. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS: SOCIETAL COST
Page 88 and 89: 3.2 Case Study 2: Sri Lanka The soc
Page 90 and 91: A first difference between the two
Page 92 and 93: Coral Bleaching in the Indian Ocean
Page 94 and 95: leaching occurred in the Maldives,
Page 96 and 97: months after the coral bleaching ev
Page 98 and 99: Level of importance 35 30 25 20 15
Page 100 and 101: trols. What is useful from the data
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Page 106 and 107: also seem capable of providing many
Page 108 and 109: Table 1. Summary of Findings of Eco
Page 110 and 111: Table 2-A. Summary Table of Bioecon
Page 112 and 113: lation for the spawning stock abund
Page 114 and 115: 3.2.1 DENSITY-DEPENDENT MIGRATION M
Page 116 and 117: 3.2.3 DENSITY-DEPENDENT AND UNI-DIR
Page 118 and 119: 4.2 Habitat Protection A critical a
Page 120 and 121: REFERENCES Alcala, A. C., (1989)
Page 122 and 123: Russ, G. R., & Alcala, A. C., (1996
Page 124 and 125: poses of this review, the mechanism
Page 126 and 127: Supervision and training of labour
Page 128 and 129: Table 1. Comparison of restoration
Page 130 and 131: elating to the case studies. Recrea
Page 132 and 133: Value of reef products and services
Page 134 and 135: Fitzharding, R. C., & Bailey-Brock,
Page 136 and 137: 1995). Global annual retail value o
Page 138 and 139: Table 1. Market Prices in Hong Kong
Page 140 and 141: 2.3 Recent Trends The Asian financi
Page 142 and 143: destructive, since corals are often
Page 144 and 145: (input factors are indicated by blu
Page 146 and 147: Table 2. Challenges of grouper cult
Page 148 and 149: stages when natural mortality is hi
Page 150 and 151: STRENGTHEN ENFORCEMENT AND MONITORI
Page 152 and 153: 32 Several efforts along these line
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Jones, R., (1997) “Effects of Cya
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▲ An Economic and Ecological Anal
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The Park was re-established and rev
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associated with dive tourism and th
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Apparent stress threshold B A S 1 P
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A Comparative Study of Socio-Econom
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Table 1. Key Site Characteristics C
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Level Target Respondent Information
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Table 2. Variables Used in the Econ
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Table 3. Tied P-Values for Differen
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as, lagoons and coral reefs were pe
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Table 5. Results of the Econometric
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ties may not reveal their true perc
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Salafsky, N., Cordes, B., John Park
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ICZM guides jointly the activities
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such as alternative means of beach
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2.3.2 CONTRIBUTIONS TO UTILITY —
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marginal benefit function, relating
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the type of use, are not linked to
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4. FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR DECISION S
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Huber, R. M., & Jameson, S. C., (19
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Appendix. Economic valuation studie
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Ecosystem and Approach ____________
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Ecosystem and Approach ____________
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Contemporary national development p
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The PBPA contains four prominent ex
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5. INTERACTIONS BETWEEN ECOSYSTEM S
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Table 2. Categories of Ecosystems i
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MEY shows the enormous level of ove
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the ecosystem together. The total (
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▲ tourism, coastal protection and
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has dramatically decreased from abo
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seaweed per year is generating abou
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Table 4. Current (1999) annual net
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The essential activities that can e
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their overall economic benefit to i
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Private Sector Management of Marine
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ety of important conservation and o
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50 40 # incidents 30 20 10 0 J A J
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● Investment security is reduced
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onmental practices, and therefore t
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7.4 NGOs Are Not Always Accountable
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Sterner, T, & Andersson, J., (1998)
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perfect but not completed and origi
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Jeff Muller, Economist, World Bank,
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