Cesar2000-Economics of Coral Reefs.pdf

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Table 1. Market Prices in Hong Kong Dollars for Selected Live Reef Fishes in Hong Kong in May 1999. Species name English common name Price in HK$ per kg Price in US$ per kg Epinephelus coioides Green, orange-spotted grouper 117 15 E. polyphekadion Camouflage/flowery grouper, cod 137 18 E. fuscoguttatus Brown-marble, tiger grouper 120 16 E. akaara Hong Kong, red grouper 341 44 E. lanceolatus Giant grouper 161 21* Cromileptes altivelis Highfin, rat, mouse, humpback grouper 500 65 Plectropomus leopardus Leopard coral grouper, trout 233 30 Plectropomus areolatus Spotted coral grouper, trout 149 19 Cheilinus undulatus Humphead, Napoleon, Maori wrasse 417 54 Source: AFD Hong Kong, 1999. *The price reflects the combined average price for giant grouper, i.e., of large-sized fish which must be divided for sale and therefore bring lower prices per kilo, and of small-sized fish which can be served whole to a single restaurant table and thus garner higher prices per kilo. nary requirements, and the associated heavy price-tag is happily accepted (see table 1 for prices of some species). Groupers are favourites in Hong Kong for important social occasions such as wedding or business celebrations. Chinese communities in other importing countries, such as Japan, Singapore, Thailand and Malaysia, also consume live reef fish, but their total contributions are small when compared with those of greater China. In terms of quantity of fish, Johannes & Riepen (1995) estimate that in 1995 the total volume of the LRFT was 20,000 to 25,000 tonnes. This corresponds to some 38 million fish 7 with a retail revenue of US$ 1.0 billion (Barber & Pratt 1998). Estimates by Lau & Parry-Jones (1999) reveal a much larger trade: in 1997, Hong Kong alone imported nearly 32,000 metric tons of live reef fish, of which 18,900 were groupers and humphead wrasse. Approximately 10 to 20% of Hong Kong’s live reef fish imports are re-exported to China (Lau & Parry-Jones 1999). Hong Kong accounts for at least 60% of the total LRFT in the Asia-Pacific region, suggesting a total volume for the trade in Southeast Asia and the Indo-Pacific of 54,000 tonnes — one and a half times the volume indicated by official Hong Kong statistics. The contribution of other Asian economies, such as Japan, Taiwan, Singapore and Malaysia, is relatively small when compared with that of Hong Kong or China. 8 2.2 The Supply Side of the LRFT Major supply nations for the LRFT include Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand and Malaysia. As figure 1 shows, Australia, China (e.g., Pratas Islands), Vietnam, Taiwan (mariculture), Myanmar and Papua New Guinea also supply live reef fish to the trade, but their individual exports are relatively minor. However, the supply side is highly dynamic, with remote island nations in the Indo-Pacific such as Micronesia, the Maldives, the Solomon Islands, Fiji and Kiribati increasing production as other nations exhaust their fishing grounds. Hong Kong fisheries statistics and a recent TRAFFIC-East Asia survey of traders indicate that nearly 100% of high-value 7 One tonne (a “metric ton”) is 1000 kilograms and is equivalent to 1.2 tons (or “short ton”); one tonne of fish consists of about 1000-1200 premium-sized individuals (Johannes and Riepen, 1995). 8 For example, in 1997, total grouper imports (excluding fry for aquaculture) into Taiwan comprised only 2, 500 tons (Taiwan Fisheries Bureau, 1997). 140 HERMAN S. J. CESAR, KIMBERLEY A. WARREN, YVONNE SADOVY, P. LAU, SIET MEIJER & EKKO VAN IERLAND:
China 0 0 0 0 31 1471 Taiwan 0 0 0 0 530 3568 0 0 0 95 2611 5402 Thailand Vietnam 0 0 0 32 53 363 Philippines 0 0 0.3 45 396 762 Maldives 0 006 16 101 Sri Lanka 0 0 0 0 2.2 20 Malaysia Singapore 0 0 0 5 44 58 0 0 0 248 173 1066 Indonesia 13.7 0.3 1.5 298 966 607 Papua New Guinea 0 0 0 0 0 15 Kiribati 0 0 0 0 0 0 Solomon Islands 0097 36 0 Legend HF - High-finned grouper Cromileptes altivelis GG - Giant grouper Epinephelus lanceolatus HH - Humphead wrasse Cheilinus undulatus CT - Coral trout Plectropomus spp. OG - Other groupers Epinephelus spp. MF - Other live marine fish Note: Maximum height of bars equals quatities over 500 tonnes Australia 110 350 0 0 0 0 Hong Kong Live Reef Fish Import Statistics (tonnes/year) HK Census & Statistics, 1998 Lau & Parry-Jones, 1999 723 14 0.28 464 1.8 665 840 6667 4860 10381 HF GG HH CT OG Figure 1. Imports of live reef fish into Hong Kong by country (all figures in metric tonnes). species such as the giant grouper (E. lanceolatus), highfinned grouper (Cromileptes altivelis) 9 and humphead wrasse are captured on the coral reefs of Indonesia and the Philippines (Lau & Perry-Jones 1999). In general, Indonesia is thought to supply nearly 50% of the total volume of the regional LRFT trade (Barber & Pratt 1997), or nearly 27,000 tonnes if the above estimates are correct, though large uncertainties remain. Groupers are supplied to consumer markets through an effective network of LRFT participants. This includes four main groups of actors: fishermen, exporters, 9 The high-finned grouper is also known as polka dot, rat or mouse grouper. importers, and consumers. While the dynamics and structure of the trade vary for each supply country, and although the market structure may appear complex, it is rather simple: import companies in Hong Kong are oligopolistic in nature and control the entire trade. These companies either have their own vessels and fish independently in foreign waters, or set up their own joint ventures in supply countries with local workers supervised by Hong Kong expatriates. Also, it is these companies that make initial contacts with local government officials, marine agencies and potential suppliers, negotiate contracts and purchase boats and supplies, send Hong Kong personnel to manage operations, and decide if and when to cease operations. MARINE MARKET TRANSFORMATION OF THE LIVE REEF FISH FOOD TRADE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA 141
Page 2 and 3:
Collected Essays on the Economics o
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Table of Contents Acknowledgements
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Foreword Corals and coral reefs hav
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● ● ● ● assessing the threa
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fishing is lucrative from the indiv
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Coral Reefs: Their Functions, Threa
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Table 1. Ecosystem functions and co
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Figure 1. Yield of Trochus Shells i
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Figure 2. Total Economic Value and
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Table 3. Total Net Benefits and Los
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Table 5. Valuation Techniques used
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people live from the Park, the high
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duction or logging) would have an e
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Hatcher, B. G., Johannes, R. E., &
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Thorhaug, A., (1992) “Oil Spills
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Authors Threats Mgt. Description Is
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Page 36 and 37:
Page 38 and 39:
Assessing the Benefits of Improving
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2.2 Coral Reef Quality Change and t
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Five groups were given and the resp
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The total sample mean was similar a
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one of the five categories were nex
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4.4 Protecting Rights and the Desir
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able for tourists versus locals was
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problem that where respondents are
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turists who regularly handle soil e
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expanding tourist industry based on
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ism and fisheries. Logging activiti
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Table 2. Fisheries gross revenue an
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an ‘Environmentally Critical Area
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25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 5,000 0
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sized animals — even at the most
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greater willingness among environme
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stroyed was 7.5 fish times 0.19 ope
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were affected by cyanide squirts fo
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Russ, G. R., (1991) “Coral reef f
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eefs that are not too remote, can n
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Table 2. Estimated net income (US$/
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Table 4. Results of base case and t
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ating the destruction of its coral
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creased. Besides these direct effec
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3. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS: SOCIETAL COST
Page 88 and 89: 3.2 Case Study 2: Sri Lanka The soc
Page 90 and 91: A first difference between the two
Page 92 and 93: Coral Bleaching in the Indian Ocean
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Page 96 and 97: months after the coral bleaching ev
Page 98 and 99: Level of importance 35 30 25 20 15
Page 100 and 101: trols. What is useful from the data
Page 102 and 103: most disappointing: food and bevera
Page 104 and 105: REFERENCES Anderson, R. C., Waheed,
Page 106 and 107: also seem capable of providing many
Page 108 and 109: Table 1. Summary of Findings of Eco
Page 110 and 111: Table 2-A. Summary Table of Bioecon
Page 112 and 113: lation for the spawning stock abund
Page 114 and 115: 3.2.1 DENSITY-DEPENDENT MIGRATION M
Page 116 and 117: 3.2.3 DENSITY-DEPENDENT AND UNI-DIR
Page 118 and 119: 4.2 Habitat Protection A critical a
Page 120 and 121: REFERENCES Alcala, A. C., (1989)
Page 122 and 123: Russ, G. R., & Alcala, A. C., (1996
Page 124 and 125: poses of this review, the mechanism
Page 126 and 127: Supervision and training of labour
Page 128 and 129: Table 1. Comparison of restoration
Page 130 and 131: elating to the case studies. Recrea
Page 132 and 133: Value of reef products and services
Page 134 and 135: Fitzharding, R. C., & Bailey-Brock,
Page 136 and 137: 1995). Global annual retail value o
Page 140 and 141: 2.3 Recent Trends The Asian financi
Page 142 and 143: destructive, since corals are often
Page 144 and 145: (input factors are indicated by blu
Page 146 and 147: Table 2. Challenges of grouper cult
Page 148 and 149: stages when natural mortality is hi
Page 150 and 151: STRENGTHEN ENFORCEMENT AND MONITORI
Page 152 and 153: 32 Several efforts along these line
Page 154 and 155: Jones, R., (1997) “Effects of Cya
Page 156 and 157: ▲ An Economic and Ecological Anal
Page 158 and 159: The Park was re-established and rev
Page 160 and 161: associated with dive tourism and th
Page 162 and 163: Apparent stress threshold B A S 1 P
Page 164 and 165: A Comparative Study of Socio-Econom
Page 166 and 167: Table 1. Key Site Characteristics C
Page 168 and 169: Level Target Respondent Information
Page 170 and 171: Table 2. Variables Used in the Econ
Page 172 and 173: Table 3. Tied P-Values for Differen
Page 174 and 175: as, lagoons and coral reefs were pe
Page 176 and 177: Table 5. Results of the Econometric
Page 178 and 179: ties may not reveal their true perc
Page 180 and 181: Salafsky, N., Cordes, B., John Park
Page 182 and 183: ICZM guides jointly the activities
Page 184 and 185: such as alternative means of beach
Page 186 and 187: 2.3.2 CONTRIBUTIONS TO UTILITY —
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marginal benefit function, relating
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the type of use, are not linked to
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4. FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR DECISION S
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Huber, R. M., & Jameson, S. C., (19
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Appendix. Economic valuation studie
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Ecosystem and Approach ____________
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Ecosystem and Approach ____________
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Contemporary national development p
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The PBPA contains four prominent ex
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5. INTERACTIONS BETWEEN ECOSYSTEM S
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Table 2. Categories of Ecosystems i
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MEY shows the enormous level of ove
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the ecosystem together. The total (
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▲ tourism, coastal protection and
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has dramatically decreased from abo
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seaweed per year is generating abou
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Table 4. Current (1999) annual net
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The essential activities that can e
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their overall economic benefit to i
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Private Sector Management of Marine
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ety of important conservation and o
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50 40 # incidents 30 20 10 0 J A J
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● Investment security is reduced
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onmental practices, and therefore t
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7.4 NGOs Are Not Always Accountable
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Sterner, T, & Andersson, J., (1998)
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perfect but not completed and origi
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Jeff Muller, Economist, World Bank,
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