Cesar2000-Economics of Coral Reefs.pdf

More documents

Recommendations

Info

STRENGTHEN ENFORCEMENT AND MONITORING OF THE TRADE Laws forbidding the export of giant grouper and humphead wrasse are already on the books in several supply countries. Importing economies, particularly Hong Kong, could achieve significant progress in combating cyanide fishing by enforcing the conservation laws of their trading partners regarding the harvest of wildlife in an environmentally unsustainable manner (Lathrop & Hourigan 1997). Reciprocal cooperation of this type already exists between the U.S. and the Philippines in the form of the U.S. Lacey Act (see Lathrop & Hourigan (1997) for details). 26 In addition to Hong Kong, policymakers in mainland China should be more actively encouraged to reduce cyanide fishing in the Asia-Pacific region. A proactive approach would greatly assist in preventing the intensification of the LRFT as demand grows in mainland China. REGIONAL LRTF CERTIFICATION SYSTEM The above measures can set the stage for development of a regional LRFT certification system. Elements of the system, such as cyanide detection laboratories, are already in place in the Philippines (albeit with an informal, rather than legally binding, system), but funding from APEC and international development assistance organisations could be targeted towards the transfer of this system to all APEC and Indo-Pacific nations involved in the LRFT. Strict monitoring of the trade and cyanide fishing could be achieved through random checks at both export and import locations, and with a ‘cradle-to-grave’ cyanide-free documentation and labelling system. 27 Vigorous marketing campaigns would be 26 For example, the export of certain sizes of humphead wrasse is currently banned by Indonesian law. A reciprocal import ban should be introduced and enforced in demand countries, particularly Hong Kong, where these distinctive animals will be easy to monitor, spot and confiscate at airports, waterfront distribution centres and restaurants. Illegal shipments could be seized and confiscated, and importers fined heavily for violations. Volunteer enforcement monitors, from local NGO staff and university researchers and students, could be used to supplement under-staffed and under-funded agricultural and fisheries departments in such enforcement efforts. 27 In a cradle to grave system, each link in the LRFT chain is held required at this stage to ensure the success of the program at the consumer level. Efforts to promote sustainable grouper mariculture can also be integrated into a regional certification system, with the labelling schemes of the MSC or FSC serving as a model for such mariculture production systems (Holthus 1999; Clay 1998). TRAINING AND AWARENESS TO HALT GEOGRAPHIC SPREAD OF CYANIDE FISHING FOR LRFT In LRFT source countries in the Indo-Pacific, innovative and preventative approaches can be promoted to ensure cyanide-free and sustainable grouper fisheries. Bilateral donors, international financial institutions like the World Bank or ADB, and NGOs can assist by targeting their funding towards action-oriented programs such as the Destructive Fishing Reform Initiative (see Barber 1999). Awareness campaigns on cyanide fishing, and assistance with business negotiations and monitoring of the LRFT would assist supply countries currently targeted by Hong Kong LRFT companies. Furthermore, the match between cyanide-free exporters and concerned LRFT importers could be facilitated to foster sustainable business partnerships. 28 responsible for supplies from earlier links. If any supplier (e.g., restaurants, importers, air cargo companies) accepts, knowingly or unknowingly, live reef fish which violate regional anti-cyanide prohibitions, they could be fined and/or the cargo could be confiscated, with repeated offenders expelled from the system. 28 Many governments in supply nations have yet to recognise that the key to sustainability lies in their own hands: if they place reasonable restrictions on foreign fishing companies in exchange for permission to operate in their waters, these firms will generally comply. Restrictions might include the authority to conduct random inspections of foreign LRFT boats, expedited handling and prosecution of violators, satellite tracking installation requirements, and the use of market entry fees. Regulations forbidding the use of compressors on foreign fishing vessels — a clear and easily detectable sign of cyanide fishing — would greatly help curb cyanide fishing operations (Pet and Djohani, 1998). University biologists and fisheries experts could also be “loaned” to assist in grouper stock assessments and the development of fisheries management plans, and “mobile LRFT advisors” could be made available upon request (and paid for by bilateral agencies and NGOs) to source countries. Another possibility is to use debt-for-nature swaps, in which outstanding loans or debts in source countries are relieved in exchange for coral reef ecosystem sanctuaries. 152 HERMAN S. J. CESAR, KIMBERLEY A. WARREN, YVONNE SADOVY, P. LAU, SIET MEIJER & EKKO VAN IERLAND:
7.2 Transforming the LRFT Market from Unsustainable to Sustainable At present rates, the harvesting of coral reef fish for the LRFT, irrespective of the cyanide fishing issue, is unsustainable. Numerous policy and market measures can be adopted to shift the LRFT towards a more sustainable future. (For further discussion of potential solutions to the LRFT, see Barber and Pratt 1998; Cheung et al. 1998; Smith 1997, and Bentley 1999). BAN IMPORTS OF VULNERABLE SPECIES AND IMPOSE SIZE RESTRICTIONS An immediate ban on the import of humphead wrasse and giant grouper, at any stage of their life cycle, is needed in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and mainland China. Giant grouper and humphead wrasse are listed on the IUCN red list, which signifies that biologists believe their populations are vulnerable. Since the volume of trade in these two species is small and their consumption constitutes only a tiny fraction of the total market, closing the market for these two wildlife species will not significantly impact the trade’s volume. For those currently engaged in mariculture of these two species in Taiwan, assistance by biologists and research institutes could be continued. However, the importation of broodstock and fingerlings from the wild should be banned. A range of size restrictions on other live reef fish species could be imposed by both importing and exporting economies to ensure all fish captured for the LRFT have reached adulthood. Data on the approximate size at sexual maturity of many grouper species and the humphead wrasse are compiled by Sadovy (1998a) and could be used as initial guidelines (which could be modified as more biological and reproductive research is completed for live reef fish species). CLOSE SPAWNING AGGREGATIONS TO FISHING To sustain future grouper fisheries the exploitation of spawning aggregations should be prohibited. Spawning aggregations for most larger reef fishes, including the groupers, probably represent the only opportunities for reproduction. 29 Whenever fishing pressure has exceeded traditional artisenal levels, aggregations have declined, and in some cases, have disappeared. It is clear that intensive commercial exploitation, of the type required for the LRFT, decimates targeted aggregations, which should be strongly protected to ensure survival of the populations that depend on them (Bohnsack 1989). 30 Rapid and positive progress can be achieved when governments, local communities, biologists, and marine agencies take concerted action to protect grouper spawning aggregations. For example, in Pohnpei, Micronesia the Department of Resources Management and Development (DRMD) instituted a 2-month annual closure period (recently extended to 3 months) for fishing on all grouper aggregations during spawning, and established marine sanctuaries that protect aggregations at two different spawning locations. 31 Similarly, several spawning sites in Palau are now closed as well. 7.3 Stimulate Sustainable Live Reef Fish Mariculture Mariculture, based on sustainable practices, could help foster conservation of wild grouper stocks. This could be done, in part, by local growout of wild caught juveniles. However, as practiced today grouper mariculture relies largely on the grow-out of wild-caught juveniles, con- 29 For many species, these aggregations last less than 2-3 weeks in the year and, since they typically occur at predictable times and locations, are readily targeted. 30 One potential challenge with the closure of spawning stocks to fishing lies in offering local fishermen alternative income sources during the grouper spawning season (1-3 months). Because enforcement of these closures has already been found to be difficult in some countries, research and international assistance on ways to improve the effectiveness of monitoring and enforcement are urgently needed. 31 In early 1999 the DRMD discovered that two of Pohnpei’s largest grouper spawning aggregations lay outside one of the marine sanctuary boundary markers and were being fished to extinction by local villagers. The department took bold and swift action. Two weeks after the discovery, they initiated an emergency decree to move the boundary markers to include the grouper aggregations, and in April 1999 began joint efforts to create an additional marine sanctuary at Ant Atoll for protection of other important grouper spawning aggregations. In 1999, the governor of Pohnpei formally signed the marine sanctuary at Ant Atoll into law (Kevin Rhodes, pers. comm., 12 May 1999). MARINE MARKET TRANSFORMATION OF THE LIVE REEF FISH FOOD TRADE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA 153
Page 2 and 3:
Collected Essays on the Economics o
Page 4 and 5:
Table of Contents Acknowledgements
Page 6 and 7:
Foreword Corals and coral reefs hav
Page 8 and 9:
● ● ● ● assessing the threa
Page 10 and 11:
fishing is lucrative from the indiv
Page 12 and 13:
Coral Reefs: Their Functions, Threa
Page 14 and 15:
Table 1. Ecosystem functions and co
Page 16 and 17:
Figure 1. Yield of Trochus Shells i
Page 18 and 19:
Figure 2. Total Economic Value and
Page 20 and 21:
Table 3. Total Net Benefits and Los
Page 22 and 23:
Table 5. Valuation Techniques used
Page 24 and 25:
people live from the Park, the high
Page 26 and 27:
duction or logging) would have an e
Page 28 and 29:
Hatcher, B. G., Johannes, R. E., &
Page 30 and 31:
Thorhaug, A., (1992) “Oil Spills
Page 32 and 33:
Authors Threats Mgt. Description Is
Page 34 and 35:
Page 36 and 37:
Page 38 and 39:
Assessing the Benefits of Improving
Page 40 and 41:
2.2 Coral Reef Quality Change and t
Page 42 and 43:
Five groups were given and the resp
Page 44 and 45:
The total sample mean was similar a
Page 46 and 47:
one of the five categories were nex
Page 48 and 49:
4.4 Protecting Rights and the Desir
Page 50 and 51:
able for tourists versus locals was
Page 52 and 53:
problem that where respondents are
Page 54 and 55:
turists who regularly handle soil e
Page 56 and 57:
expanding tourist industry based on
Page 58 and 59:
ism and fisheries. Logging activiti
Page 60 and 61:
Table 2. Fisheries gross revenue an
Page 62 and 63:
an ‘Environmentally Critical Area
Page 64 and 65:
25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 5,000 0
Page 66 and 67:
sized animals — even at the most
Page 68 and 69:
greater willingness among environme
Page 70 and 71:
stroyed was 7.5 fish times 0.19 ope
Page 72 and 73:
were affected by cyanide squirts fo
Page 74 and 75:
Russ, G. R., (1991) “Coral reef f
Page 76 and 77:
eefs that are not too remote, can n
Page 78 and 79:
Table 2. Estimated net income (US$/
Page 80 and 81:
Table 4. Results of base case and t
Page 82 and 83:
ating the destruction of its coral
Page 84 and 85:
creased. Besides these direct effec
Page 86 and 87:
3. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS: SOCIETAL COST
Page 88 and 89:
3.2 Case Study 2: Sri Lanka The soc
Page 90 and 91:
A first difference between the two
Page 92 and 93:
Coral Bleaching in the Indian Ocean
Page 94 and 95:
leaching occurred in the Maldives,
Page 96 and 97:
months after the coral bleaching ev
Page 98 and 99:
Level of importance 35 30 25 20 15
Page 100 and 101: trols. What is useful from the data
Page 102 and 103: most disappointing: food and bevera
Page 104 and 105: REFERENCES Anderson, R. C., Waheed,
Page 106 and 107: also seem capable of providing many
Page 108 and 109: Table 1. Summary of Findings of Eco
Page 110 and 111: Table 2-A. Summary Table of Bioecon
Page 112 and 113: lation for the spawning stock abund
Page 114 and 115: 3.2.1 DENSITY-DEPENDENT MIGRATION M
Page 116 and 117: 3.2.3 DENSITY-DEPENDENT AND UNI-DIR
Page 118 and 119: 4.2 Habitat Protection A critical a
Page 120 and 121: REFERENCES Alcala, A. C., (1989)
Page 122 and 123: Russ, G. R., & Alcala, A. C., (1996
Page 124 and 125: poses of this review, the mechanism
Page 126 and 127: Supervision and training of labour
Page 128 and 129: Table 1. Comparison of restoration
Page 130 and 131: elating to the case studies. Recrea
Page 132 and 133: Value of reef products and services
Page 134 and 135: Fitzharding, R. C., & Bailey-Brock,
Page 136 and 137: 1995). Global annual retail value o
Page 138 and 139: Table 1. Market Prices in Hong Kong
Page 140 and 141: 2.3 Recent Trends The Asian financi
Page 142 and 143: destructive, since corals are often
Page 144 and 145: (input factors are indicated by blu
Page 146 and 147: Table 2. Challenges of grouper cult
Page 148 and 149: stages when natural mortality is hi
Page 152 and 153: 32 Several efforts along these line
Page 154 and 155: Jones, R., (1997) “Effects of Cya
Page 156 and 157: ▲ An Economic and Ecological Anal
Page 158 and 159: The Park was re-established and rev
Page 160 and 161: associated with dive tourism and th
Page 162 and 163: Apparent stress threshold B A S 1 P
Page 164 and 165: A Comparative Study of Socio-Econom
Page 166 and 167: Table 1. Key Site Characteristics C
Page 168 and 169: Level Target Respondent Information
Page 170 and 171: Table 2. Variables Used in the Econ
Page 172 and 173: Table 3. Tied P-Values for Differen
Page 174 and 175: as, lagoons and coral reefs were pe
Page 176 and 177: Table 5. Results of the Econometric
Page 178 and 179: ties may not reveal their true perc
Page 180 and 181: Salafsky, N., Cordes, B., John Park
Page 182 and 183: ICZM guides jointly the activities
Page 184 and 185: such as alternative means of beach
Page 186 and 187: 2.3.2 CONTRIBUTIONS TO UTILITY —
Page 188 and 189: marginal benefit function, relating
Page 190 and 191: the type of use, are not linked to
Page 192 and 193: 4. FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR DECISION S
Page 194 and 195: Huber, R. M., & Jameson, S. C., (19
Page 196 and 197: Appendix. Economic valuation studie
Page 198 and 199: Ecosystem and Approach ____________
Page 200 and 201:
Ecosystem and Approach ____________
Page 202 and 203:
Contemporary national development p
Page 204 and 205:
The PBPA contains four prominent ex
Page 206 and 207:
5. INTERACTIONS BETWEEN ECOSYSTEM S
Page 208 and 209:
Table 2. Categories of Ecosystems i
Page 210 and 211:
MEY shows the enormous level of ove
Page 212 and 213:
the ecosystem together. The total (
Page 214 and 215:
▲ tourism, coastal protection and
Page 216 and 217:
has dramatically decreased from abo
Page 218 and 219:
seaweed per year is generating abou
Page 220 and 221:
Table 4. Current (1999) annual net
Page 222 and 223:
The essential activities that can e
Page 224 and 225:
their overall economic benefit to i
Page 226 and 227:
Private Sector Management of Marine
Page 228 and 229:
ety of important conservation and o
Page 230 and 231:
50 40 # incidents 30 20 10 0 J A J
Page 232 and 233:
● Investment security is reduced
Page 234 and 235:
onmental practices, and therefore t
Page 236 and 237:
7.4 NGOs Are Not Always Accountable
Page 238 and 239:
Sterner, T, & Andersson, J., (1998)
Page 240 and 241:
perfect but not completed and origi
Page 242:
Jeff Muller, Economist, World Bank,
show all

Cesar2000-Economics of Coral Reefs.pdf

Create successful ePaper yourself

Delete template?

Save as template?