Cesar2000-Economics of Coral Reefs.pdf

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7.4 NGOs Are Not Always Accountable Where central governments are perceived as inefficient, undemocratic and unaccountable, external support for environmental and conservation projects is increasingly channelled to non-governmental organisations (NGOs). However, what is often overlooked is that NGOs are not accountable by definition or through the mere act of registration. Public control and political will, appropriate legislation and supervisory bodies are required to ensure that NGOs actually fulfil their mandated work and use their funds effectively. These conditions are not yet fully given in Tanzania. As elsewhere, the lack of public supervision of NGO activities encourages the formation of briefcase organisations by civil servants and their social networks. After decades of donor assistance to government, they are the most conversant with application procedures, terminology and reporting formats of donor agencies. And where, as in Tanzania, the tax legislation provides few incentives for charitable contributions of individuals and business organisations, there is also a risk of NGOs being formed mainly for access to external funding, rather than for stewardship for environmental and community interests. This situation undermines transparency and accountability to both the members of a NGO (in case of membership organisations) and the intended beneficiaries. 8. CONCLUSIONS The predominant donor perception of the private sector as being located outside and antagonistic to a sometimes romanticised ‘local community’ is not helpful for understanding stakeholder interests in coral reef management. Though traditional fisheries and the harvesting of reef resources may belong to the informal sector of the economy in many countries, these are still economic activities that are sometimes highly commercialised. Ignoring this reality does not help in the identification of genuine stakeholders. Viable partnerships for the management of a particular marine area are more likely when local communities, traditional fishers and tourism operators are acknowledged as belonging to the (formal and informal) private sector that responds to similar economic incentives. Small-scale fishers, shell collectors and seaweed farmers who depend on reef resources for their survival, may have more common interests with local tourism and dive operators than with central government agencies and foreign-funded NGOs. In order to safeguard the sustainability of their economic activities, tourism operators, fishers and other resource users have a potential interest in coral reef management. Involving them in conservation projects and park management is likely to raise their awareness in this respect. Of course, outside support would still be required in certain cases, particularly where threats to coral reefs originate from distant areas, such as logging, siltation and large-scale infrastructure developments (World Bank 1999). It is suggested that the international conservation and donor community would improve the impact of their investment in coral reef conservation if project designs focused more on direct resource users and stakeholders in a particular area, who have long-term economic incentives to co-operate. This may include support to private management, particularly where small highly protected MPAs are created. These have the potential of providing fish refuges, larval sources and suitable settlement areas, by which adjacent fishing areas are eventually replenished with marine species through reproduction or migration. Such well managed small MPAs may become the core of large, multiple use MPAs and free access areas. Support to private initiatives may help alleviate the commercial risks of long-term investment in conservation and integrate a wider range of stakeholders in coastal zone management, and thus improve local political support to MPAs. Last but not least, donor support for policy reforms that improve security of tenure and the investment climate in general may also encourage private investment in better environmental practices and conservation. 238 SIBYLLE RIEDMILLER:
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am very grateful to the following persons who read and contributed valuable ideas to this paper: Eleanor Carter, Matthew Richmond, Regine Goergen, Lida Pet-Soede and Michelle Honkanen. REFERENCES Andrews, G., (1998) “Mafia Island Marine Park, Tanzania, Implications of Applying a Marine Park Paradigm in a Developing Country”. Paper presented at the International Tropical Marine Ecosystem Management Symposium (ITMEMS), Townsville, 23–26 November. Bakari, R., & Andersson, J., (1998) “Economic Liberalization and Its Effect on the Exploitation of Crustaceans in Tanzania”. Ambio, Vol.27, No.8. Beentje, H. J., (1990) A Reconnaissance Survey of Zanzibar Forests and Coastal Thicket. Finnida-Cole, Zanzibar Cairncross F., (1991) Costing the Earth: the Challenge for Governments, the Opportunities for Business. Harvard Business School Press, Boston. Carter, E., Nyange, O., & Said, Y., (1997) “Management Experiences of the Chumbe Reef Sanctuary 1992–1996”. Paper presented at the National Coral Reef Conference, Zanzibar, 2–4 December. CHICOP – Chumbe Island Coral Park (1995) Management Plan 1995–2005. Zanzibar CHICOP – Chumbe Island Coral Park (1999) Progress Report 1992–1999. Zanzibar Colwell, S., (1999) “Entrepreneurial MPAs: Dive Resorts as Managers of Coral Reef Marine Protected Areas”. InterCoast Newsletter, Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island, No.34. Dixon, J., Sherman, A., & Sherman, P. B., (1990), Economics of Protected Areas: A New Look at Benefits and Costs. Island Press, Washington DC. Fiebig, S., (1995) “Fish Species List and Management Report on the Chumbe Reef Sanctuary”. Guard, M., (1997) “Dynamite Fishing in Southern Tanzania”. Miombo 17, Wildlife Conserv. Soc. of Tanzania, Dar es Salaam Horrill, C., (1992) Status and Issues Affecting the Marine Resources Around Fumba Peninsula. COLE-Zanzibar Environmental Study Series, No. 12. Horrill C., & Makoloweka, S., (1998) “Silencing the Dynamite Fisheries along the Tanga Coast, Tanzania”. Paper presented at the ICRI-International Tropical Marine Ecosystems Management Symposium, (ITMEMS) November 23–26, Townsville, Australia. Iles, D. B., (1995) “Roseate Terns”. Miombo, No.13, July 1995, Wildlife Conservation Society of Tanz., Dar es Salaam. Jameson, S. C., Mcmanus, J. W., & Spalding, M. D., (1995) “State of the Reefs, Regional and Global Perspectives”. An International Coral Reef Initiative Executive Secretariat Background Paper. Kingdon, J., (1997) The Kingdon Field Guide to African Mammals. Academic Press. Luhikula, G., (1999) “Community Participatory Approach Pays Dividends in Fight Against Dynamite Fishing”. InterCoast Network Newsletter, Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island, Narragansett, USA, No. 34. Moffat, D., Ngoile, M., Lindén, O., & Francis, J., (1998) “The Reality of the Stomach: Coastal Management at the Local Level in Eastern Africa”. Ambio, Vol.27, No.8. Neckenig, H., (1998) Chumbe Island Coral Park, A Viability Study. CHICOP, Zanzibar. Olsen, S. B., Tobey J., & Hale, L. Z., “A Learning-Based Approach to Coastal Management”. Ambio, Vol.27 No.8. Rauth, R., (1997) “Bureaucracy Killing Business in Africa”. Financial Times, April 23–29. Riedmiller, S., (1991) Environmental Education in Zanzibar: Proposals for Action. Dept. of Environment, Finnida, Zanzibar Riedmiller, S., & Cooksey, B., (1995) Science Teaching in Government Secondary Schools in Mainland Tanzania — A Situational Analysis. Consultancy Report, GTZ-University of Dar es Salaam Riedmiller, S., (1998), “The Chumbe Island Coral Park Project, A Case Study of Private Management of a Marine Protected Area”. Paper presented at IUCN-Regional Workshop on Marine Protected Areas, Tourism and Communities, May 11–13, Mombasa Riedmiller, S., (1998) “The Chumbe Island Coral Park Project, Management Experiences of a Private Marine Conservation”. Project, Paper presented at the ICRI-International Tropical Marine Ecosystems Management Symposium (ITMEMS), November 23–26, Townsville, Australia Riedmiller, S., (1999) “The Chumbe Island Coral Park: A Private Marine Conservation Project”. InterCoast Network Newsletter, Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island, No. 34. Scheinman, D., & Mabrook, A., (1996) The Traditional Management of Coastal Resources. Tanga Coastal Zone Conservation and Development Programme, Tanga, Tanzania. Semesi, A., Mgaya, Y. D., Muruke, M. H. S., Frances, J., Mtolera, M., & Msumi, G., (1998), “Coastal Resources Utilization and Conservation Issues in Bagamoyo, Tanzania”, Ambio, Vol.27, No.8. Soley, N., (1997) “Chumbe Island Coral Park, Analysis of Costs”. Paper presented at the Workshop on Revenue from Nature Conservation Areas in Zanzibar, 15–16 July 1997, Zanzibar. PRIVATE SECTOR MANAGEMENT OF MARINE PROTECTED AREAS: THE CHUMBE ISLAND CASE 239
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Collected Essays on the Economics o
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Table of Contents Acknowledgements
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Foreword Corals and coral reefs hav
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● ● ● ● assessing the threa
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fishing is lucrative from the indiv
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Coral Reefs: Their Functions, Threa
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Table 1. Ecosystem functions and co
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Figure 1. Yield of Trochus Shells i
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Figure 2. Total Economic Value and
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Table 3. Total Net Benefits and Los
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Table 5. Valuation Techniques used
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people live from the Park, the high
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duction or logging) would have an e
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Hatcher, B. G., Johannes, R. E., &
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Thorhaug, A., (1992) “Oil Spills
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Authors Threats Mgt. Description Is
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Assessing the Benefits of Improving
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2.2 Coral Reef Quality Change and t
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Five groups were given and the resp
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The total sample mean was similar a
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one of the five categories were nex
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4.4 Protecting Rights and the Desir
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able for tourists versus locals was
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problem that where respondents are
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turists who regularly handle soil e
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expanding tourist industry based on
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ism and fisheries. Logging activiti
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Table 2. Fisheries gross revenue an
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an ‘Environmentally Critical Area
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25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 5,000 0
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sized animals — even at the most
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greater willingness among environme
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stroyed was 7.5 fish times 0.19 ope
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were affected by cyanide squirts fo
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Russ, G. R., (1991) “Coral reef f
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eefs that are not too remote, can n
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Table 2. Estimated net income (US$/
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Table 4. Results of base case and t
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ating the destruction of its coral
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creased. Besides these direct effec
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3. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS: SOCIETAL COST
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3.2 Case Study 2: Sri Lanka The soc
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A first difference between the two
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Coral Bleaching in the Indian Ocean
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leaching occurred in the Maldives,
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months after the coral bleaching ev
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Level of importance 35 30 25 20 15
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trols. What is useful from the data
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most disappointing: food and bevera
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REFERENCES Anderson, R. C., Waheed,
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also seem capable of providing many
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Table 1. Summary of Findings of Eco
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Table 2-A. Summary Table of Bioecon
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lation for the spawning stock abund
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3.2.1 DENSITY-DEPENDENT MIGRATION M
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3.2.3 DENSITY-DEPENDENT AND UNI-DIR
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4.2 Habitat Protection A critical a
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REFERENCES Alcala, A. C., (1989)
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Russ, G. R., & Alcala, A. C., (1996
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poses of this review, the mechanism
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Supervision and training of labour
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Table 1. Comparison of restoration
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elating to the case studies. Recrea
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Value of reef products and services
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Fitzharding, R. C., & Bailey-Brock,
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1995). Global annual retail value o
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Table 1. Market Prices in Hong Kong
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2.3 Recent Trends The Asian financi
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destructive, since corals are often
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(input factors are indicated by blu
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Table 2. Challenges of grouper cult
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stages when natural mortality is hi
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STRENGTHEN ENFORCEMENT AND MONITORI
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32 Several efforts along these line
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Jones, R., (1997) “Effects of Cya
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▲ An Economic and Ecological Anal
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The Park was re-established and rev
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associated with dive tourism and th
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Apparent stress threshold B A S 1 P
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A Comparative Study of Socio-Econom
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Table 1. Key Site Characteristics C
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Level Target Respondent Information
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Table 2. Variables Used in the Econ
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Table 3. Tied P-Values for Differen
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as, lagoons and coral reefs were pe
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Table 5. Results of the Econometric
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ties may not reveal their true perc
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Salafsky, N., Cordes, B., John Park
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ICZM guides jointly the activities
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such as alternative means of beach
Page 186 and 187: 2.3.2 CONTRIBUTIONS TO UTILITY —
Page 188 and 189: marginal benefit function, relating
Page 190 and 191: the type of use, are not linked to
Page 192 and 193: 4. FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR DECISION S
Page 194 and 195: Huber, R. M., & Jameson, S. C., (19
Page 196 and 197: Appendix. Economic valuation studie
Page 198 and 199: Ecosystem and Approach ____________
Page 200 and 201: Ecosystem and Approach ____________
Page 202 and 203: Contemporary national development p
Page 204 and 205: The PBPA contains four prominent ex
Page 206 and 207: 5. INTERACTIONS BETWEEN ECOSYSTEM S
Page 208 and 209: Table 2. Categories of Ecosystems i
Page 210 and 211: MEY shows the enormous level of ove
Page 212 and 213: the ecosystem together. The total (
Page 214 and 215: ▲ tourism, coastal protection and
Page 216 and 217: has dramatically decreased from abo
Page 218 and 219: seaweed per year is generating abou
Page 220 and 221: Table 4. Current (1999) annual net
Page 222 and 223: The essential activities that can e
Page 224 and 225: their overall economic benefit to i
Page 226 and 227: Private Sector Management of Marine
Page 228 and 229: ety of important conservation and o
Page 230 and 231: 50 40 # incidents 30 20 10 0 J A J
Page 232 and 233: ● Investment security is reduced
Page 234 and 235: onmental practices, and therefore t
Page 238 and 239: Sterner, T, & Andersson, J., (1998)
Page 240 and 241: perfect but not completed and origi
Page 242: Jeff Muller, Economist, World Bank,
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