Cesar2000-Economics of Coral Reefs.pdf

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were affected by cyanide squirts for the target fish. However, fish are among the organisms that are most sensitive for cyanide (Eisler 1991), so it seems likely that squirts that are supposed to only stun fish, may not do that much harm to other organisms. Some smaller fish that were in the direct vicinity of the target fish at the moment of capture may die, but unfortunately we cannot quantify this collateral damage at present. The risk of cyanide fishing having adverse long term effects on the environment is probably low, as there are no reports of cyanide biomagnification or cycling in living organisms (Eisler 1991). Cyanide seldom persists in surface waters owing to complexation or sedimentation, microbial metabolism, and loss from volatilization (Eisler 1991). In the absence of scientific evidence that shows that the amount of reef degradation is actually an order of magnitude higher than our observation of one square meter per cyanide-caught fish, we must conclude that the reef-degrading capacity of the cyanide-based LRFFT is not as obvious as is sometimes assumed. Therefore, there is a need to get the balance right when deciding how to allocate reef conservation dollars over the abatement of the various threats that coral reefs nowadays face. There are numerous threats to coral reefs that are beyond doubt (cf. Bryant et al. 1998). Some of these threats, such as global warming (Hoegh-Guldberg 1999) need to be addressed on a global scale, but others, notably blast fishing (Pet-Soede, Cesar & Pet 1999) can be addressed cost-efficiently at a local level (Pet 1997, Pet & Mous 1999). We are of the opinion that within the category ‘destructive fishing practices for food fish’ blast fishing deserves a higher amount of conservation effort than cyanide fishing. Blast fishing accounts for a loss in live coral cover of 3.75%-points yearly (Pet-Soede, Cesar & Pet 1999), which is about 75 times more than our best estimate, and still about 5–6 times more than our ‘worst case’ estimate for the loss of coral cover due to cyanide fishing for food fish. The second effect of the LRFFT, the depletion of grouper stocks in its fishing grounds (cf. Bentley 1999) is more worrying from both conservation and fisheries perspectives. The specific nature of the market for live food fish, where rarity increases the price up to a level where it is economically sound to catch the very last specimen, puts the fish stocks that are targeted by the LRFFT at a high risk (Sadovy & Vincent, in press). The grouper spawning aggregation sites are easily located by the fishers, and the life-history characteristics of groupers (longevity and size-dependent sex change) make these stocks even more vulnerable to overexploitation (Sadovy 1997, 1994a). Hence, the size-selective fishing methods practiced in the LRFFT affects reproductive success of the exploited stocks in two ways: by extracting the more fecund larger individuals, and by affecting the sex ratio (Johannes et al. 1999). As the target fish are mostly top predators, the LRFFT may also indirectly affect the reef fish community at the lower trophic levels through cascading effects in the food web that are known to exist in both temperate and tropical aquatic food webs (Carpenter, Kitchell & Hodgson 1985; Goldsmith, Witte & Wanink 1993). The problem of over-exploitation cannot be solved by abating cyanide fishing alone, as it is possible to deplete grouper stocks by other fishing methods (i.e. hook-and-line) as well (Sadovy 1993; Sadovy 1994b). Therefore, it is our opinion that the more severe problem in the live reef fish trade is overexploitation rather than fishing with cyanide. The problem of overexploitation can only be solved by putting a proper fisheries management and enforcement framework in place. We strongly support the recommendation in the recent TRAFFIC/WWF report (Lau & Parry-Jones 1999) to protect spawning aggregations, but we regret that this recommendation is listed under “Specific recommendations to address cyanide fishing”. Protection of grouper stocks and of other stocks targeted by the LRFFT should consider all fishing methods, not only cyanide fishing. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Dr. Rodney Salm for his valuable comments on the manuscript. 74 PETER J. MOUS, LIDA PET-SOEDE, MARK ERDMANN, HERMAN S. J. CESAR, YVONNE SADOVY & JOS S. PET:
REFERENCES Baillie, J., & Groombridge, B., (1996) IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Barber, C. V., & Pratt, V. R., (1997a) “Incentives and private sector partnerships to combat cyanide-fishing in the Indo- Pacific region”. Paper presented at the Eighth Global Biodiversity Forum, Montreal, Canada, August 28–31 1997. 17 p. Barber, C. V., & Pratt, V. R., (1997b) Sullied seas. Strategies for combating cyanide fishing in Southeast Asia and beyond. World Resources Institute, International Marinelife Alliance. 64 p. Bentley, N., (1999) Fishing for solutions: can the live trade in wild groupers and wrasses from Southeast Asia be managed TRAFFIC Report downloaded from http://www.trophia.com Bryant, D., Burke, L., McManus, J., & Spalding, M., (1998) Reefs at risk. A map-based indicator of threats to the world’s coral reefs. A joint publication by World Resources Institute (WRI), Int. Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management (ICLARM), World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC), and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). 56 p. Carpenter, S. R., Kitchell, J. F., & Hodgson, J. R., (1985) “Cascading trophic interactions and lake productivity. fish predation and herbivory can regulate ecosystems”. BioScience 35: 634–639 Dragon Search 1996. The market analysis of live reef fish in Hong Kong and China. Report prepared by Dragon Search for the Queensland Dept. of Primary Industries. 119 p. + app. Eisler, R. (1991) Cyanide hazards to fish, wildlife, and invertebrates: a synoptic review. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Biological Report 85 (1.23). 54 p Erdmann, M. V., (1999) “Destructive fishing practices in the Pulau Seribu Archipelago”. In: Soemodihardjo, S., (ed.) Proceedings of the UNESCO Coral Reef Evaluation Workshop, Pulau Seribu, Jakarta, Indonesia. UNESCO, Jakarta: 84–89. Erdmann, M. V., & Pet-Soede, L., (1996) “How fresh is too fresh The live reef food fish trade in Eastern Indonesia”. NAGA, the ICLARM quarterly 19: 4–8. Erdmann, M. V., & Pet-Soede, L., (1999) “B6 + M3 = DFP; an overview of destructive fishing practices in Indonesia”. In: Proceedings of APEC Workshop on the impacts of destructive fishing practices on the marine environment. Hong Kong, 1997: 25–34. Goldschmidt, T., Witte, F., & Wanink, J., (1993) “Cascading effects of the introduced Nile perch on the detritivorous/ phytoplanktivorous species in the sublittoral areas of lake Victoria”. Conservation Biology 3: 686–700 Hoegh-Guldberg ,O., (1999) Climate change, coral bleaching and the future of the world’s coral reefs. Report to Greenpeace International. 27 p. Indrawan, M., (1999) “Live reef food fish trade in the Banggai Islands (Sulawesi, Indonesia): A case study”. SPC Live Reef Fish Trade Information Bulletin 6: 7–14 Jennings, S., & Polunin, N. V. C., (1995) “Comparative size and composition of yield from six Fijian reef fisheries”. Journal of Fish Biology 46: 28–46. Johannes, R. E., & Riepen, M., (1995) Environmental, economic and social implications of the live reef fish trade in Asia and the Western Pacific. Report prepared for The Nature Conservancy. 81 p. Johannes, R. E., Squire, L., Graham, T., Sadovy, Y., & Renguul , H., (1999) Spawning aggregations of Groupers (Serranidae) in Palau. The Nature Conservancy Marine Research Series Publication No. 1. 144 p. Jones, R. J., Kildea, T., & Hoegh-Guldberg, O., (1999) “PAM Chlorophyll fluorometry: a new in situ technique for stress assessment in Scleractinian corals, used to examine the effects of cyanide from cyanide fishing”. Marine Pollution Bulletin 10: 864–874 Jones, R. J., & Hoegh-Guldberg, O., (1999) “Effects of cyanide on coral photosynthesis: implications for identifying the cause of coral bleaching and for assessing the environmental effects of cyanide fishing”. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 177: 83–91. Jones, R. J., & Steven, A. L., (1997) “Effects of cyanide on corals in relation to cyanide fishing on reefs”. Mar. Freshwat. Res. 48: 517–522 Lau, P. P. F., & Parry-Jones, R., (1999) The Hong Kong trade in live reef fish for food. TRAFFIC East Asia and World Wide Fund For Nature Hong Kong, Hong Kong. 65 p. McManus, J. W., Reyes, R. B. J., & Nanola, C. L. J., (1997) “Effects of some destructive fishing methods on coral cover and potential rates of recovery”. Environmental Management 21: 69–78. Pet, J. S., (1997) “Destructive fishing practices in and around Komodo National Park”. SPC Live Reef Fish Information Bulletin 2: 20–24 Pet, J. S., (1999) Marine resource utilization in Komodo National Park. Monitoring report 1997–1998. Report from The Nature Conservancy Coastal and Marine Program Indonesia. 38 p. Pet, J. S., & Mous, P. J., (1999) Status of the coral reefs in and around Komodo National Park 1996–1998. Monitoring report prepared by The Nature Conservancy Indonesia Coastal and Marine Program, Jakarta, Indonesia. 21 p. Pet, J. S., & Pet-Soede, L., (1999) “A note on cyanide fishing in Indonesia”. SPC Live Reef Fish Information Bulletin 5: 21–22 Pet-Soede, C., Cesar, H. S. J., & Pet, J. S., (1999) “An economic analysis of blast fishing on Indonesian coral reefs”. Environmental Conservation 26: 83–93 Pratt, V. R., (1995) “The growing threat of cyanide fishing in the Asia Pacific region and emerging strategies to combat it”. Paper presented at the Global Biodiversity Forum 1995, November 4–5 1995, Jakarta, Indonesia. 7 p. CYANIDE FISHING ON INDONESIAN CORAL REEFS FOR THE LIVE FOOD FISH MARKET — WHAT IS THE PROBLEM 75
Page 2 and 3:
Collected Essays on the Economics o
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Table of Contents Acknowledgements
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Foreword Corals and coral reefs hav
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● ● ● ● assessing the threa
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fishing is lucrative from the indiv
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Coral Reefs: Their Functions, Threa
Page 14 and 15:
Table 1. Ecosystem functions and co
Page 16 and 17:
Figure 1. Yield of Trochus Shells i
Page 18 and 19:
Figure 2. Total Economic Value and
Page 20 and 21:
Table 3. Total Net Benefits and Los
Page 22 and 23: Table 5. Valuation Techniques used
Page 24 and 25: people live from the Park, the high
Page 26 and 27: duction or logging) would have an e
Page 28 and 29: Hatcher, B. G., Johannes, R. E., &
Page 30 and 31: Thorhaug, A., (1992) “Oil Spills
Page 32 and 33: Authors Threats Mgt. Description Is
Page 38 and 39: Assessing the Benefits of Improving
Page 40 and 41: 2.2 Coral Reef Quality Change and t
Page 42 and 43: Five groups were given and the resp
Page 44 and 45: The total sample mean was similar a
Page 46 and 47: one of the five categories were nex
Page 48 and 49: 4.4 Protecting Rights and the Desir
Page 50 and 51: able for tourists versus locals was
Page 52 and 53: problem that where respondents are
Page 54 and 55: turists who regularly handle soil e
Page 56 and 57: expanding tourist industry based on
Page 58 and 59: ism and fisheries. Logging activiti
Page 60 and 61: Table 2. Fisheries gross revenue an
Page 62 and 63: an ‘Environmentally Critical Area
Page 64 and 65: 25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 5,000 0
Page 66 and 67: sized animals — even at the most
Page 68 and 69: greater willingness among environme
Page 70 and 71: stroyed was 7.5 fish times 0.19 ope
Page 74 and 75: Russ, G. R., (1991) “Coral reef f
Page 76 and 77: eefs that are not too remote, can n
Page 78 and 79: Table 2. Estimated net income (US$/
Page 80 and 81: Table 4. Results of base case and t
Page 82 and 83: ating the destruction of its coral
Page 84 and 85: creased. Besides these direct effec
Page 86 and 87: 3. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS: SOCIETAL COST
Page 88 and 89: 3.2 Case Study 2: Sri Lanka The soc
Page 90 and 91: A first difference between the two
Page 92 and 93: Coral Bleaching in the Indian Ocean
Page 94 and 95: leaching occurred in the Maldives,
Page 96 and 97: months after the coral bleaching ev
Page 98 and 99: Level of importance 35 30 25 20 15
Page 100 and 101: trols. What is useful from the data
Page 102 and 103: most disappointing: food and bevera
Page 104 and 105: REFERENCES Anderson, R. C., Waheed,
Page 106 and 107: also seem capable of providing many
Page 108 and 109: Table 1. Summary of Findings of Eco
Page 110 and 111: Table 2-A. Summary Table of Bioecon
Page 112 and 113: lation for the spawning stock abund
Page 114 and 115: 3.2.1 DENSITY-DEPENDENT MIGRATION M
Page 116 and 117: 3.2.3 DENSITY-DEPENDENT AND UNI-DIR
Page 118 and 119: 4.2 Habitat Protection A critical a
Page 120 and 121: REFERENCES Alcala, A. C., (1989)
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Russ, G. R., & Alcala, A. C., (1996
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poses of this review, the mechanism
Page 126 and 127:
Supervision and training of labour
Page 128 and 129:
Table 1. Comparison of restoration
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elating to the case studies. Recrea
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Value of reef products and services
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Fitzharding, R. C., & Bailey-Brock,
Page 136 and 137:
1995). Global annual retail value o
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Table 1. Market Prices in Hong Kong
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2.3 Recent Trends The Asian financi
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destructive, since corals are often
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(input factors are indicated by blu
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Table 2. Challenges of grouper cult
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stages when natural mortality is hi
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STRENGTHEN ENFORCEMENT AND MONITORI
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32 Several efforts along these line
Page 154 and 155:
Jones, R., (1997) “Effects of Cya
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▲ An Economic and Ecological Anal
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The Park was re-established and rev
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associated with dive tourism and th
Page 162 and 163:
Apparent stress threshold B A S 1 P
Page 164 and 165:
A Comparative Study of Socio-Econom
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Table 1. Key Site Characteristics C
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Level Target Respondent Information
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Table 2. Variables Used in the Econ
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Table 3. Tied P-Values for Differen
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as, lagoons and coral reefs were pe
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Table 5. Results of the Econometric
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ties may not reveal their true perc
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Salafsky, N., Cordes, B., John Park
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ICZM guides jointly the activities
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such as alternative means of beach
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2.3.2 CONTRIBUTIONS TO UTILITY —
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marginal benefit function, relating
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the type of use, are not linked to
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4. FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR DECISION S
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Huber, R. M., & Jameson, S. C., (19
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Appendix. Economic valuation studie
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Ecosystem and Approach ____________
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Ecosystem and Approach ____________
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Contemporary national development p
Page 204 and 205:
The PBPA contains four prominent ex
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5. INTERACTIONS BETWEEN ECOSYSTEM S
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Table 2. Categories of Ecosystems i
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MEY shows the enormous level of ove
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the ecosystem together. The total (
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▲ tourism, coastal protection and
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has dramatically decreased from abo
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seaweed per year is generating abou
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Table 4. Current (1999) annual net
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The essential activities that can e
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their overall economic benefit to i
Page 226 and 227:
Private Sector Management of Marine
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ety of important conservation and o
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50 40 # incidents 30 20 10 0 J A J
Page 232 and 233:
● Investment security is reduced
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onmental practices, and therefore t
Page 236 and 237:
7.4 NGOs Are Not Always Accountable
Page 238 and 239:
Sterner, T, & Andersson, J., (1998)
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perfect but not completed and origi
Page 242:
Jeff Muller, Economist, World Bank,
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