Cesar2000-Economics of Coral Reefs.pdf

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expanding tourist industry based on foreign and Filipino SCUBA divers. By 1986, there were two major international scuba diving resorts within the bay. They are relatively high priced and market valuable products, clear water and beautiful coral reefs. Logging operations, thus, conflict with both the fisheries and tourism industries in El Nido via sediment pollution of the bay. ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF SEDIMENTATION Agricultural land makes up only 5.5% of the 78 km 2 drainage basin, and is located on relatively flat ground. Observations indicated that practically all sedimentation in Bacuit Bay during the time of the study was coming from logging. After cutting about 6% of the 42 km 2 forest in the drainage basin in 1985, logging operations were halted. The result is that the sediment output measured during the 1986 study period is a conservative estimate of what active operations would have produced. During 1986, an experiment was conducted to compare the rate of erosion from a logging road, a cut forest and an uncut forest. The experiment involved collecting the runoff and sediment from a measured area of slope. The three experimental plots were located within a few dozen meters of each other. The erosion rate measured from the cut forest plot was over 4 times the virgin forest erosion rate, and the road surface erosion rate was 240 times that of the virgin forest. It was estimated that although roads comprise only about 25% of the cut forest area, they produced 85% of the total erosion. These results were consistent with previous work on erosion from logging concessions in the tropics (O’Loughlin 1985). Sediment output from the drainage basin was measured by setting up a gauging station on the main river draining the basin and measuring daily discharge and sediment load. Periodic sampling of an adjacent ‘control’ river passing through all land use types except logging revealed about a 100-fold difference in suspended sediment load. In order to measure the actual sediment deposition in the bay, a sediment trap network was set up at eight coral reef stations around the bay. To measure the effects of sediment deposition on the living corals, the percentage coral cover, species richness and diversity, and fish diversity and biomass were surveyed in replicate at the eight stations at the beginning and end of 1986. As shown in figure 2, coral cover, species number, species diversity and average colony size were 70 Cover Species 7 700 Coral cover (%) and species (#) 60 50 40 30 20 10 Species diversity (H I ) 6 5 4 3 2 1 Colony size (cm 2 ) 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 Jan. Dec. Jan. Dec. 0 0 Jan. Dec. Jan. Dec. Figure 2. Percent live coral cover, number of coral species, species diversity and mean colony size per transect (8 stations), January and December 1986. 58 GREGOR HODGSON & JOHN A. DIXON:
60 Coral cover Coral species Fish catch Sediment 400,000 Coral cover (%), coral species (#), and fish catch († x 100) 40 20 300,000 200,000 100,000 Sediment (†) 0 0 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 Year Figure 3. Predicted changes over 10 years in coral species numbers, percent live coral cover, fish catch due to increased sediment input and deposition in Bacuit Bay as a result of logging. all reduced at the end of 1986, with the worst effects recorded at the sites closest to the river mouth. While fish can swim to avoid stressful conditions, most reef corals are attached to the substrate and cannot escape. However, a wide variety of reef and nonreef fish are directly and indirectly dependent upon the living coral reef for their livelihood (Sano et al. 1987; McClanahan 1995). The main deleterious effect of sediment pollution on Bacuit Bay fisheries is expected to occur indirectly due to habitat and food loss as the corals are killed. In order to predict future fisheries losses due to coral mortality, the positive correlation between coral cover and diversity, and fish biomass in Bacuit Bay was used. The original analysis was based on a plan to log the remaining forest within five years. Luckily, this plan was never realised, but the analysis is still instructive regarding how to use this type of data to construct a simple ecological economic model. It is also useful for providing an illustration of how assumptions about the value of various economic sectors need to be investigated carefully before development decisions are made. The erosion experiment showed that logging causes accelerated erosion, mainly due to road building that leads to a high sediment output from the watershed and increased sediment deposition on the bay coral reefs. This deposition kills some corals and is predicted to reduce fish biomass at a defined rate (figure 3). The assumptions underlying this graph are discussed in Hodgson & Dixon (1988). ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF LOGGING AND SEDIMENTATION In order to estimate the full range of economic benefits and costs associated with the use of any coastal resource, it is necessary for the economist to work with natural and social scientists. Together they can explore potential effects of a planned resource use with respect to links among ecosystems and their effect on people living in the area. For this case study, the three resource-based industries operating in the same area are logging, tour- EL NIDO REVISITED: ECOTOURISM, LOGGING AND FISHERIES 59
Page 2 and 3:
Collected Essays on the Economics o
Page 4 and 5:
Table of Contents Acknowledgements
Page 6 and 7: Foreword Corals and coral reefs hav
Page 8 and 9: ● ● ● ● assessing the threa
Page 10 and 11: fishing is lucrative from the indiv
Page 12 and 13: Coral Reefs: Their Functions, Threa
Page 14 and 15: Table 1. Ecosystem functions and co
Page 16 and 17: Figure 1. Yield of Trochus Shells i
Page 18 and 19: Figure 2. Total Economic Value and
Page 20 and 21: Table 3. Total Net Benefits and Los
Page 22 and 23: Table 5. Valuation Techniques used
Page 24 and 25: people live from the Park, the high
Page 26 and 27: duction or logging) would have an e
Page 28 and 29: Hatcher, B. G., Johannes, R. E., &
Page 30 and 31: Thorhaug, A., (1992) “Oil Spills
Page 32 and 33: Authors Threats Mgt. Description Is
Page 38 and 39: Assessing the Benefits of Improving
Page 40 and 41: 2.2 Coral Reef Quality Change and t
Page 42 and 43: Five groups were given and the resp
Page 44 and 45: The total sample mean was similar a
Page 46 and 47: one of the five categories were nex
Page 48 and 49: 4.4 Protecting Rights and the Desir
Page 50 and 51: able for tourists versus locals was
Page 52 and 53: problem that where respondents are
Page 54 and 55: turists who regularly handle soil e
Page 58 and 59: ism and fisheries. Logging activiti
Page 60 and 61: Table 2. Fisheries gross revenue an
Page 62 and 63: an ‘Environmentally Critical Area
Page 64 and 65: 25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 5,000 0
Page 66 and 67: sized animals — even at the most
Page 68 and 69: greater willingness among environme
Page 70 and 71: stroyed was 7.5 fish times 0.19 ope
Page 72 and 73: were affected by cyanide squirts fo
Page 74 and 75: Russ, G. R., (1991) “Coral reef f
Page 76 and 77: eefs that are not too remote, can n
Page 78 and 79: Table 2. Estimated net income (US$/
Page 80 and 81: Table 4. Results of base case and t
Page 82 and 83: ating the destruction of its coral
Page 84 and 85: creased. Besides these direct effec
Page 86 and 87: 3. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS: SOCIETAL COST
Page 88 and 89: 3.2 Case Study 2: Sri Lanka The soc
Page 90 and 91: A first difference between the two
Page 92 and 93: Coral Bleaching in the Indian Ocean
Page 94 and 95: leaching occurred in the Maldives,
Page 96 and 97: months after the coral bleaching ev
Page 98 and 99: Level of importance 35 30 25 20 15
Page 100 and 101: trols. What is useful from the data
Page 102 and 103: most disappointing: food and bevera
Page 104 and 105: REFERENCES Anderson, R. C., Waheed,
Page 106 and 107:
also seem capable of providing many
Page 108 and 109:
Table 1. Summary of Findings of Eco
Page 110 and 111:
Table 2-A. Summary Table of Bioecon
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lation for the spawning stock abund
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3.2.1 DENSITY-DEPENDENT MIGRATION M
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3.2.3 DENSITY-DEPENDENT AND UNI-DIR
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4.2 Habitat Protection A critical a
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REFERENCES Alcala, A. C., (1989)
Page 122 and 123:
Russ, G. R., & Alcala, A. C., (1996
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poses of this review, the mechanism
Page 126 and 127:
Supervision and training of labour
Page 128 and 129:
Table 1. Comparison of restoration
Page 130 and 131:
elating to the case studies. Recrea
Page 132 and 133:
Value of reef products and services
Page 134 and 135:
Fitzharding, R. C., & Bailey-Brock,
Page 136 and 137:
1995). Global annual retail value o
Page 138 and 139:
Table 1. Market Prices in Hong Kong
Page 140 and 141:
2.3 Recent Trends The Asian financi
Page 142 and 143:
destructive, since corals are often
Page 144 and 145:
(input factors are indicated by blu
Page 146 and 147:
Table 2. Challenges of grouper cult
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stages when natural mortality is hi
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STRENGTHEN ENFORCEMENT AND MONITORI
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32 Several efforts along these line
Page 154 and 155:
Jones, R., (1997) “Effects of Cya
Page 156 and 157:
▲ An Economic and Ecological Anal
Page 158 and 159:
The Park was re-established and rev
Page 160 and 161:
associated with dive tourism and th
Page 162 and 163:
Apparent stress threshold B A S 1 P
Page 164 and 165:
A Comparative Study of Socio-Econom
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Table 1. Key Site Characteristics C
Page 168 and 169:
Level Target Respondent Information
Page 170 and 171:
Table 2. Variables Used in the Econ
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Table 3. Tied P-Values for Differen
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as, lagoons and coral reefs were pe
Page 176 and 177:
Table 5. Results of the Econometric
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ties may not reveal their true perc
Page 180 and 181:
Salafsky, N., Cordes, B., John Park
Page 182 and 183:
ICZM guides jointly the activities
Page 184 and 185:
such as alternative means of beach
Page 186 and 187:
2.3.2 CONTRIBUTIONS TO UTILITY —
Page 188 and 189:
marginal benefit function, relating
Page 190 and 191:
the type of use, are not linked to
Page 192 and 193:
4. FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR DECISION S
Page 194 and 195:
Huber, R. M., & Jameson, S. C., (19
Page 196 and 197:
Appendix. Economic valuation studie
Page 198 and 199:
Ecosystem and Approach ____________
Page 200 and 201:
Ecosystem and Approach ____________
Page 202 and 203:
Contemporary national development p
Page 204 and 205:
The PBPA contains four prominent ex
Page 206 and 207:
5. INTERACTIONS BETWEEN ECOSYSTEM S
Page 208 and 209:
Table 2. Categories of Ecosystems i
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MEY shows the enormous level of ove
Page 212 and 213:
the ecosystem together. The total (
Page 214 and 215:
▲ tourism, coastal protection and
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has dramatically decreased from abo
Page 218 and 219:
seaweed per year is generating abou
Page 220 and 221:
Table 4. Current (1999) annual net
Page 222 and 223:
The essential activities that can e
Page 224 and 225:
their overall economic benefit to i
Page 226 and 227:
Private Sector Management of Marine
Page 228 and 229:
ety of important conservation and o
Page 230 and 231:
50 40 # incidents 30 20 10 0 J A J
Page 232 and 233:
● Investment security is reduced
Page 234 and 235:
onmental practices, and therefore t
Page 236 and 237:
7.4 NGOs Are Not Always Accountable
Page 238 and 239:
Sterner, T, & Andersson, J., (1998)
Page 240 and 241:
perfect but not completed and origi
Page 242:
Jeff Muller, Economist, World Bank,
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