gBDkI

iv) Observational Arts Participation encompasses arts experiences that an individual selects
or consents to, motivated by some expectation of value.
v) Ambient Arts Participation involves experiencing art, consciously or subconsciously, that
is not purposefully selected – art that “happens to you.”
Each mode presents a different level of creative control, and the more creative control one has
over an artistic experience, the more value this can yield. Yet, the value to the individual is not
necessarily dependent on the level of knowledge, technical skill or competence in the art form
(”Numerous respondents spoke of the great joy and satisfaction they derive from arts activities in
which they have little training or technical knowledge”), nor can or should judgements about the
validity or worth of arts experiences be based on skill levels.
Brown’s five modes of participation transcend discipline, genre, cultural context and skill level.
Downloading music from the Internet and burning one’s own CD compilation can be classified as
curatorial arts participation, as would collecting museum-quality art for home display.
Interestingly, the same approach features hip hop music entrepreneurs in Senegal (Mbaye,
2011), for whom “motivation of participation is “intrinsically positive, i.e. deriving from passion
rather than from ‘extrinsic positives’ (self-interest or greed, motivated by the external monetary
system)”’ (Bauwens, 2009).
In general the quality of the artistic or cultural activity in which people participate is not an object
of discussion. Opposed concepts and cultural hierarchies (active/passive, high/low, professional/
amateur) are not appropriate. Identified as dimensions of the symbolic struggle in society linked
to the processes of distinction, inclusion and exclusion of social groups (UNESCO-UIS, 2006),
such concepts are hard to maintain since the diffusion of reception theory (Jauss, 1982) and
have lost even more significance with the recent spread of the Internet and new technologies
(see Chapter 2.2.2).
It may also be important for surveys to record a wide range of ‘appropriate’ behaviour at cultural
events. For instance, Likkanen (Likkanen et al., 2006:69-70), observes different cultural
behaviour during different events. At rock concerts and sport events, audiences are expected to
shout encouragement and often to move around. By contrast, when looking at formal classical
music and dance, audiences are expected to remain in their seats and clap politely, or perhaps
occasionally stand up and say ‘bravo’! By contrast, traditional music and dance may show no
boundaries between audience and performers allowing them to talk to each other, change
places and interact with the audience becoming performers and vice versa. These kinds of
behaviour are key to understanding how communities use cultural events to reinforce identity.
2.2 Key issues surrounding cultural participation and measurement implications
A number of key issues surrounding the concept of cultural participation are presented and
explained in the theoretical literature. They influence the design of surveys carried out around
the world. This chapter explores the main issues with the help of theoretical explanations and
with a review of international cultural participation surveys. Surveys on cultural participation (or
- 20 -