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� books consulted/lent in libraries;
� digital visitors to libraries/museums/cultural centres (number of unique logons to
institutions’ website); and
� membership of cultural associations and attendance at meetings.
The reliability of such administrative data depends on close cooperation of central and local
collecting agencies. Local bodies need to be given ownership for the administrative data they
collect, clear instructions for collection, and feedback on the results, as well as sufficient funding.
Audience or visitor surveys
These types of survey usually concentrate on the audience for a specific cultural domain
(e.g. visual arts, music, dance) or of a specific cultural venue or event (museum, theatre,
festival). In these cases, questions are generally asked directly of visitor samples or
representative members of the population being studied. This method obtains an immediate idea
of the composition of a group, and information about behaviour, attitudes, preferences and
satisfaction levels. The drawback is that information about non-attendance (and the barriers
preventing the participation of the absentees or the reasons for a deliberate choice not to be
involved) and about which section of the population is engaged in other cultural activities,
remains unclear. Such surveys cannot by themselves provide overall numbers of attendees
unless accompanied by some form of administrative record of total admissions/attendance.
An important example of such a type of survey is the 2008 Jordan Domestic Tourism Survey. 7
Tourism statistics are often limited to foreign visitors, but foreign tourists often attend cultural
events for a variety of motives, whereas the attendance of local people at cultural events is an
important indicator of affirming local identity. In the case of the Jordanian survey of 2008,
‘Visiting cultural and historical site’ was the second most important main activity for domestic
tourists after swimming and water sports.
Sample population surveys
This is the best method of studying cultural participation in a global and multifaceted way.
Sample population surveys are most suitable for measuring cultural participation in the context
of the behaviour of the whole population living/working in an area. Sample population surveys
are particularly appropriate for measuring ‘going out’ and ‘identity-building’ activities (while time
use surveys are more appropriate for measuring home-based cultural activities).
Sample population surveys question a sample (usually those over a certain age, i.e. 15 or 16
years) randomly selected from the entire population of a country or a specific area (in a few
cases such studies may be carried out at an international level) or on a specific socio-economic
group on the basis of a sampling strategy. The aim is to measure the cultural participation of the
target population and of various sub-groups. Normally the reference period during which cultural
activity is recorded covers the previous 12 months. Sample population surveys can be a reliable
means of cross-national comparison, but they require accurate methodological design to avoid
bias and sampling errors (some methodological issues will be discussed in the last part of this
chapter).
7 www.dos.gov.jo/dos_home_e/main/index.htm accessed on 30 August 2012.
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