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The contrast between the core approaches to culture statistics adopted by National Statistics
Offices in Canada and New Zealand is instructive on the macro issue of administrative
arrangements. In New Zealand, ‘Maori statistics’, their concepts and surveys are maintained as
a separate module within surveys and statistical standards. In this way, Maori culture is
surveyed with the same instruments as other population groups but maintains its cohesiveness
and local ownership.
In Canada, autochthonous and local groups are heavily involved in designing their own surveys
which must conform to the standards set by Statistics Canada. Thus in Canada, in some ways,
local groups have more ownership over the main survey instruments, though within a national
guideline which may or may not be strictly aligned with their interests.
The important point here is whether to be relatively open to different cultural concepts as in New
Zealand so they may be mainstreamed into surveys or whether to be relatively open within
permitting groups as in Canada to influence core survey design. In practice, most countries have
to balance these different approaches, as we have already emphasised.
In most population surveys which include questions on cultural participation, all data and every
indicator is generally analysed in relation to the following factors (independent variables). In
each case, some suggestions are given about their particular importance in surveys of cultural
participation and how culture may influence measurement:
� Gender: men and women may follow different cultural practices. Particular
methodological issues may be encountered in adapting surveys from developed
countries for societies which are matriarchal or matrilineal.
� Age: key life stages may be different for different cultures, in particular ‘coming of age’
may mean that completely different behaviour is expected between one year and
another.
� Geographical area, size of locality, urban or rural location: particular care should be
taken where several very different societies live in a small locality. Careful sampling is
required to ensure that data will be representative.
� Level of education/qualification: in Europe, highly-educated parents are likely to have
children with strong cultural participation. In their analysis of Brazilian household
expenditure on culture, Diniz and Machado (2011) indicated that cultural participation
rose strongly with each year of education completed. Parental education, or schooling,
can be major factors in children accepting or rejecting their traditional culture.
� Household structure: can be a particular problem. Different people may live in a house at
different times of the year. In some societies, it is normal for all the men in the village to
stay in a communal house for part of the year. The head of household may be a man or a
woman, and may or may not be able to respond on behalf of all who live there. 5 In some
cases, it may not be possible to determine a consistent household structure at all.
5 It is common in all household surveys for up to 30% or more of respondents to be ‘head of household’
rather than individual members of the household. There are many circumstances (e.g. gender
differences) under which one-half of the household may not know about the practices of the other half.
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