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Legionary tombs usually display great detail about military dress and equipment. Pictured here is one of the most famous examples—the tombstone of Marcus Caelius (ILS 2244), the 53-year-old senior centurion of the Eighteenth legion (legio XIIX). (Rheinisches Landesmuseum, Bonn, Germany/Bildarchiv Steffens/Bridgeman Art Library) 11
12 The Roman A rmy Perhaps by way of compensation for being unable to cremate his brother with due ceremony, Publius chose to depict Marcus with all his military decorations, his phalerae or metal discs denoting battle honors, held on leather straps across his chest, and on his head the corona civica, awarded for saving the life of a Roman citizen. Marcus Caelius is depicted in a lively fashion from the hips upward as though he is standing behind a low wall. In his right hand he holds his centurion’s vine stick protruding over and partly obscuring the initial C of his name on the inscription below him. Another centurion’s tombstone from Colchester in Britain (RIB 200) depicts its subject full-length, resting his right hand on his vine stick as though it were a modern walking stick. This is the centurion of the Twentieth legion (legio XX), Marcus Favonius Facilis, who died not long after the Claudian con quest of Bri t a i n . His arm or and military dress are shown in great detail, including the straps holding his sword on his left side, and his dagger on his right. The accuracy of the details of the infantry and cavalry arms and armor, and of the horse trappings on military tombs, has been much debated. It is known that the portraits and the let tering of the tombs would have been bri ll i a n t ly p a i n ted , so it is prob a ble that some details that were difficult to dep i ct in a c a rved rel i ef were prob a bly made mu ch cl e a rer in paint. But in gen eral the s c u l ptu red rel i efs of s o l d i ers give us more inform a ti on than any amount of word s , and they can be favora bly com p a red to the arch aeo l ogical finds of weapons and armor from all parts of the Empire. Be s i desthe many funera ry monu m ents there are several rel i ef s c u l ptu resthat a re wort hy of close stu dy in doc u m en ting the Roman army. These va ry trem endo u s ly in qu a l i tyand con ten t , and the usual cauti on a ry rem a rks must be made a bo ut the unqu e s ti oning accept a n ce of a ll that they of fer. In parti c u l a r, a ll the m onu m ents set up by the em perors had a statem ent to make , d i s s em i n a ting very po s i tive messages abo ut Im perial rule and military su cce s s e s . A natu ral propens i tyfor ide a l i z a ti on ob s c u res the trut h , and even if the distorti ons are on ly minim a l , it must be asked how mu ch has been sac ri f i cedto arti s tic licen s e , or even ign ora n ce on the part of the arti s t s . At tem pts have been made to iden tify spec i f i c m i l i t a ry units in sculptu ral repre s en t a ti on s , b a s ed on the different styles of we a pons or shield type s , or hel m et type s , but the artists had not nece s s a ri ly seen the troops in acti on and might simply have rede s i gn ed the sword s , h el m et s , a n d s h i elds to fit them into the ava i l a ble spaces or to improve the com po s i ti on . De s p i te these obl i ga tory cauti on s , t h ere are certain significant sculptu ral remains that con tri bute to the stu dy of the Roman army at va rious stages of its devel opm en t . For the early Rep u blican army, t wo ivory plaques were discovered a few miles southeast of Rome at the ancient town of Praen e s te (modern Pa l e stri n a ) , dep i cting hop l i te warri ors arm ed with long spe a rs and pro tected by a circular shiel d . E ach soldier ’s arm or consists of gre ave s , a cuirass molded in the appe a ra n ce of a mu s cl ed tors o, and a magn i f i cent cre s tedhel m et . Un der the cuira s s
Page 2: The Roman Army
Page 5 and 6: Copyright © 2006 by Pat Southern A
Page 7 and 8: vi C on ten ts Guard Troops: The Eq
Page 9 and 10: viii C on ten ts Britain in AD 83/8
Page 11 and 12: x The Roman A rmy and listened, to
Page 14: The Roman Army
Page 17 and 18: 2 The Roman A rmy new adversaries,
Page 19 and 20: 4 The Roman A rmy con tro l , co u
Page 21 and 22: 6 The Roman A rmy tives asking for
Page 23 and 24: 8 The Roman A rmy Bowman, 1983; Bow
Page 25: 10 The Roman A rmy the overall pict
Page 29 and 30: 14 The Roman A rmy The inner panels
Page 31 and 32: 16 The Roman A rmy Trajan’s Colum
Page 33 and 34: 18 The Roman A rmy build up a pictu
Page 35 and 36: 20 The Roman A rmy freedom and inde
Page 37 and 38: 22 The Roman A rmy vers and battles
Page 39 and 40: 24 The Roman A rmy the tri bes of s
Page 41 and 42: 26 The Roman A rmy Titus Livius (Li
Page 43 and 44: 28 The Roman A rmy his work provide
Page 45 and 46: 30 The Roman A rmy Hyginus cannot b
Page 47 and 48: 32 The Roman A rmy 371 to 392 (Bran
Page 49 and 50: 34 The Roman A rmy a rmy, f ron ti
Page 51 and 52: 36 The Roman A rmy Prosopographia I
Page 53 and 54: 38 The Roman A rmy Rome was founded
Page 55 and 56: 40 The Roman A rmy supplies was vit
Page 57: 42 Map of the Roman Empire in the m
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Sharing power with a colleague was
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set the total at 600, a figure that
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The principal duties of the consuls
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the ri ght of i n terce s s i o, or
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H i s t o r i c a l Ba c k g r o u
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During the Republic there were two
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The Army of the Roman Republic Chap
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class (classis means “calling”)
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n euvers but could also provi de ac
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total of 600 men, but the numbers o
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tilius Rufus, had assembled an army
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The Roman A rmy 97 Roman soldiers e
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have been awarded its title Victrix
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as h a s t a tus po s teri o r, t h
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The Roman A rmy 103 There was no ex
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of the ba ll i s t a ri i , u n der
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From time to time soldiers could lo
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The Roman A rmy 109 Standardization
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The military records were scru p u
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The Roman A rmy 113 Local provision
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nu s , h ad been sent to ga t h er
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The Roman A rmy 117 wise at the acc
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Troops in Rome: The Urban Cohorts a
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The Roman A rmy 121 constantly move
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L i ke the ju n i or of f i cers in
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these were the legionary centurions
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The Roman A rmy 127 The normal tour
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the other five were equestrian trib
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Recruitment Ot h er Ra n k s The Ro
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ashing. For the majority of recruit
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The Roman A rmy 135 Ha n n i b a l
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chosen, or whether they had to appl
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The Roman A rmy 139 Ch ee s m a n ,
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142 The Roman A rmy manders usually
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144 The Roman A rmy original recrui
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146 The Roman A rmy from battle, le
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148 The Roman A rmy unit prob a bly
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150 The Roman A rmy Alaudae (the la
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152 The Roman A rmy does not imply
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154 The Roman A rmy mental chronolo
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156 The Roman A rmy the knee , but
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158 The Roman A rmy verted bowl mad
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160 The Roman A rmy Holidays and Ob
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162 The Roman A rmy The purely mili
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164 The Roman A rmy m i s s i o) .
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166 The Roman A rmy skirts are laid
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168 The Roman A rmy As noted above,
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Chapter 5 The Roman Army at War Doc
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The Roman A rmy at Wa r 173 ref u s
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The Roman A rmy at Wa r 175 Soldier
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The Roman A rmy at Wa r 177 Undated
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Map showing the locations of the fr
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Plan of Wallsend fort, which stood
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The Roman A rmy at Wa r 183 Arch of
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The Roman A rmy at Wa r 185 the fro
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tail, chiefly from Britain and to s
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• Mules carrying the sections of
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On the march, the eight men of a c
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The Roman A rmy at Wa r 193 Tem por
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The Roman A rmy at Wa r 195 The Rom
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The Roman A rmy at Wa r 197 could t
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t h em . A good example of this is
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The Roman A rmy at Wa r 201 ti on c
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The Roman A rmy at Wa r 203 closely
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The Roman A rmy at Wa r 205 the wal
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The Roman A rmy at Wa r 207 36 bc,
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Chapter 6 Tools of War We a pon r y
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shield unwieldy and therefore usele
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spatha in an archaeological dig doe
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Engraving after The Catapult by Edw
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took rep l ace a ble spri n gs so t
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Tools of Wa r 219 animals by foragi
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Tools of Wa r 221 down to 5,000 men
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Tools of Wa r 223 and Tiberius as t
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individual soldiers or were corpora
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Tools of Wa r 227 3 5 . 2 - 4 ) . G
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e s pon den ce , dealt with em b a
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Tools of Wa r 231 s en t . As Po ly
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their own decisions about how to re
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Tools of Wa r 235 Several of the at
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V-shaped cut, and if the bullet is
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the majori ty being the legi on a r
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Tools of Wa r 241 Title page of a m
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Tools of Wa r 243 Dixon, Karen R.,
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246 The Roman A rmy The hard-presse
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248 The Roman A rmy of the late thi
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250 The Roman A rmy ing the third c
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252 Map of the later Roman Empire r
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254 The Roman A rmy Danube may owe
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256 The Roman A rmy ti ons should c
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258 The Roman A rmy PROFITEERING IN
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260 The Roman A rmy of ad 366 refer
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262 The Roman A rmy In the later Ro
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264 The Roman A rmy The late Roman
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Chapter 8 Great Soldiers and Battle
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iography surely starts with him, an
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G r e at S o l d i e r s a n d B at
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The greatest general of his day, Po
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scription comes from the pen of Sue
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tri be s , he cut of f the hands of
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ing one cohort from the third line
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conquered the rest of Britain after
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e fe r e n c e s a n d f u r t h e
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Chapter 9 Current Assessment Ma j o
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C u r r e n t A s s e s s m e n t 3
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C u r r e n t A s s e s s m e n t 3
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of Rom a n s , provi n c i a l s ,
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Appendix Rank Structure in the Roma
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160 men. The five centurions were r
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Glossary acetum: sour wine ad signa
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G l o s s a ry 337 constitutio anto
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G l o s s a ry 339 in command to a
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G l o s s a ry 341 tribunus plebis:
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344 B i b l i o g r a p h y PBSR Pa
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346 B i b l i o g r a p h y Develin
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348 B i b l i o g r a p h y Robinso
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Index A note on Roman names: the Ro
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Arch of Severus, 14, 107, 321 (phot
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Black Sea, 241 Block-and-tackle, 23
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Cavalry, 91-92, 93, 94, 101-102, 14
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Cornelius Celsus, Aulus, 236-237 Co
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Elections, 2 Elginhaugh, 223 Elite
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and transmission of orders, 203 Gen
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Javelin. See Pilum Javolenus Priscu
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Librarii, 105, 333 Liccaius (rival
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and treatment of wounds, 236-237 an
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Patrimonium, 74-75, 78 Pax Romana,
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Pulcher, Commander under Arrian, 20
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Senate, 59 and decision to go to wa
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water, 111, 114, 221 See also Food
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See also Food supply; Supplies Trea
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and Praetorians, 117 and Urban Coho
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