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SOUTH CAROLINA A R K A N S A S Savannah Selma Columbus MONTGOMERY Meridian JACKSON A L A B A M A G E O R G I A Lake Providence Vicksburg Shreveport A labama R Ti m b i g b e e R L O U I S I A N A Brunswick Mi si si pi R Pollard Stockton Pearl R Red R Jacksonville Spanish Fort Blakely S a bi n e R S u w a n e e R TALLAHASSEE Newport St. Marks Natural Bridge Bagdad Mobile St. Augustine Fort Pickens Pensacola Fort Barrancas Pascagoula S hip Island Ced ar Keys Depot Key Grand Ecore M I S S I S S I P P I Natchitoches Natchez Alexandria Woodville Simmesport Jackson Old River Clinton Morganza Washington Lake Pontchartrain Port Hudson BATON ROUGE Opelousas Biloxi Plaquemine Fort Pike New Orleans Donaldsonville New Iberia Algiers Thibodeaux Brashear Bayou Teche Fort Jackson T E X A S F L O R I D A Bayou La Fourche Atchafalaya R Tampa Lake Okeechobee G U L F O F M E X I C O Fort Myers Caloosahatchee R THE GULF COAST 1861–1865 0 20 40 80 120 K ey West Fort Je�erson Miles Map 2
Southern Louisiana and the Gulf Coast, 1862–1863 91 its size. In New Orleans, only every seventh resident was black, but the city’s 10,689 “free people of color” constituted nearly half of the black population. Not only did these free people form a community larger than most Louisiana towns; Northern-born white residents of New Orleans far outnumbered the entire population of Baton Rouge, the state capital. Apart from its site near the mouth of the Mississippi, New Orleans’ heterogeneous population made it an attractive target for a federal offensive. 3 Outside New Orleans, in the sugar parishes, another set of circumstances differentiated southeastern Louisiana from the cotton-growing region. Planters whose wealth derived from sugar were in competition with the sugar-producing Caribbean colonies of Great Britain, France, Spain, the Netherlands, and Denmark. Unlike cotton producers, they never dreamed of having the European powers over a barrel. Louisiana sugar planters sent 78 percent of their product to the Northern states. They advocated high tariffs and tended to vote Whig. Half of the sugar parishes favored Douglas or Bell in the 1860 presidential election and sent anti-secession delegations to the state convention that winter. A large black population, an unusual proportion of which was free; a Northern- and foreign-born white population that was the largest in the Confederacy; and a commercial interest that was in large part anti-secessionist all combined to make southeastern Louisiana unique among Southern regions where Union forces tried to gain a beachhead. 4 In New Orleans and throughout the French-speaking part of Louisiana, many “free people of color” belonged to families that traced their liberty back to the colonial eighteenth century, when European slave owners often freed their mixedrace offspring. The 1860 federal census described 15,158 of the state’s “free colored” residents as “mulatto” and only 3,489 as “black.” The legal status of these people and their descendants was somewhere between that of whites and enslaved black people. “Free people of color” could travel without the passes that were required of slaves and could own property (some, indeed, were slaveholders themselves), but they did not enjoy full civil and political rights. Among Louisiana’s other legal oddities, it was the only state that admitted men of African ancestry to its militia. Some of the ancestors of these men had belonged to the American force that repelled a British invasion in 1815, and their descendants in 1861 had not forgotten it. Full of civic zeal, they organized a regiment called the Native Guards soon after the fall of Fort Sumter. Its officers came from the elite of “free colored” society. When they asked the secessionist state government for a chance to guard Union prisoners of war that September, though, Louisiana declined with thanks. Then, in January 1862, the state legislature passed a new militia act, inserting the word “white” as a qualification for membership. The disbanded Native Guards went home to await developments. Two months later, nearly to the day, they were recalled to duty when a federal fleet appeared in the mouth of the Mississippi 1860–80 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1983), p. 17, explains the extent of the district and the origins of the term. 3 Census Bureau, Population of the United States in 1860, pp. 195, 452, 615. 4 “Unlike cotton planters, sugar planters had no delusions about sugar being king.” Ted Tunnell, Crucible of Reconstruction: War, Radicalism and Race in Louisiana, 1862–1877 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1984), p. 17. Maps showing the votes of the sugar parishes in the 1860 presidential election and the secession convention are on pp. 11 and 12.
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FREEDOM BY THE SWORD THE U.S. COLOR
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ARMY HISTORICAL SERIES FREEDOM BY T
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ARMY HISTORICAL SERIES Reina J. Pen
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No. Page 4. Along the Mississippi R
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x Page Swampy woods near Petersburg
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The Author William A. Dobak receive
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off-duty behavior, a book about bla
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Daoust, and John G. Saint, descenda
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Chapter 1 Mustering In—Federal Po
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Mustering In—Federal Policy on Em
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Chapter 2 The South Atlantic Coast
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The South Atlantic Coast, 1861-1863
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Page 59 and 60: The South Atlantic Coast, 1861-1863
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Southern Louisiana and the Gulf Coa
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Chapter 6 The Mississippi River and
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The Mississippi River and its Tribu
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Table 1—Black Regiments Organized
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Chapter 7 Along the Mississippi Riv
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Along the Mississippi River, 1863-1
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Chapter 8 Arkansas, Indian Territor
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Arkansas, Indian Territory, and Kan
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Artists’ representations of stati
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Chapter 9 Middle Tennessee, Alabama
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Middle Tennessee, Alabama, and Geor
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Chapter 10 North Carolina and Virgi
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North Carolina and Virginia, 1861-1
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Chapter 11 Virginia, May-October 18
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Virginia, May-October 1864 337 of b
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Virginia, May-October 1864 339 Much
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Virginia, May-October 1864 341 sixt
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Virginia, May-October 1864 343 to c
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Virginia, May-October 1864 345 Disp
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Virginia, May-October 1864 347 Many
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Virginia, May-October 1864 349 some
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Virginia, May-October 1864 351 This
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Virginia, May-October 1864 353 ers
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Virginia, May-October 1864 355 not
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Virginia, May-October 1864 357 move
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Virginia, May-October 1864 359 & ba
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Virginia, May-October 1864 361 thei
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Virginia, May-October 1864 363 with
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Virginia, May-October 1864 365 The
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Virginia, May-October 1864 367 any
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Virginia, May-October 1864 369 proa
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Virginia, May-October 1864 371 ence
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Virginia, May-October 1864 373 Mary
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Virginia, May-October 1864 375 Terr
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Virginia, May-October 1864 377 rest
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Virginia, May-October 1864 379 the
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Chapter 12 Kentucky, North Carolina
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Kentucky, North Carolina, and Virgi
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Chapter 13 South Texas, 1864-1867 W
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South Texas, 1864-1867 427 Brownsvi
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South Texas, 1864-1867 429 a year e
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South Texas, 1864-1867 431 Magruder
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South Texas, 1864-1867 433 the retr
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South Texas, 1864-1867 435 water wh
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South Texas, 1864-1867 437 cleared
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South Texas, 1864-1867 439 ther nor
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South Texas, 1864-1867 441 supposed
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South Texas, 1864-1867 443 a set of
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Table 4—General Weitzel’s Ranki
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South Texas, 1864-1867 447 way, bes
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South Texas, 1864-1867 449 Palm tre
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South Texas, 1864-1867 451 ists eva
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South Texas, 1864-1867 453 were to
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Chapter 14 Reconstruction, 1865-186
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CC uu mm bb RR erland erland ugh ep
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Reconstruction, 1865-1867 459 the q
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Reconstruction, 1865-1867 461 and s
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Reconstruction, 1865-1867 463 corn.
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Reconstruction, 1865-1867 465 way t
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Reconstruction, 1865-1867 467 The 1
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Reconstruction, 1865-1867 469 us ex
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Reconstruction, 1865-1867 471 ana l
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Reconstruction, 1865-1867 473 gone
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Table 5—Muster-out Dates of Black
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Reconstruction, 1865-1867 477 honor
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Reconstruction, 1865-1867 479 thori
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Reconstruction, 1865-1867 481 Carol
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Reconstruction, 1865-1867 483 reaso
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Reconstruction, 1865-1867 485 lesse
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Reconstruction, 1865-1867 487 towns
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Reconstruction, 1865-1867 489 to Cu
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Reconstruction, 1865-1867 491 of bl
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Reconstruction, 1865-1867 493 manne
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Reconstruction, 1865-1867 495 depar
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Chapter 15 Conclusion Although the
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Conclusion 499 than twelve thousand
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Conclusion 501 Americans on the pat
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Conclusion 503 railroad constructio
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Conclusion 505 to load and fire the
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508 Freedom by the Sword: The U.S.
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Adams, Col. Charles F., 422 Adams,
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Index 539 Brown, 1st Lt. Matthew C.
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Index 541 Fleetwood, Sgt. Maj. Chri
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Index 543 Irwin, Lt. Col. Richard B
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Index 545 Moon, Capt. Lewis, 450 Mo
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Index 547 Rickard, Capt. James H.,
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Index 549 X, 70, 345, 369-70, 373,
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Index 551 64th USCI (7th Louisiana)
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Index 553 345, 354-55, 358, 367, 36
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