Rock Mechanics.pdf - Mining and Blasting

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UNDERGROUND MINING METHODS Mount Isa Mine, Queensland, Australia, to replace the cut-and-fill method that was formerly used in the steeply dipping silver-lead-zinc orebodies (Villaescusa, 1996). In this case, initial drilling and extraction drives are mined along the length and width of the orebody. A bench slot is created between these two horizons at the end of the orebody by enlarging a cut-off raise or longhole winze located near the footwall. The slot so created is used as an expansion void into which the remainder of the bench stope is formed by the sequential blasting of down-holes. In most cases, the production holes are drilled in rings parallel to the dip of the orebody between the two drives. Mining proceeds by the sequential firing of production rings into the advancing void and the ore is mucked remotely from the extraction horizon (Villaescusa, 1996). In the case of the less regular and flatter dipping orebodies mined by benching methods at the Neves Corvo Mine, Portugal, vertical transverse primary bench stopes are developed and extracted from the footwall to the hangingwall, mucked from the extraction drift and then filled mainly with paste fill. Secondary bench stopes are then mined between the primary stopes on the current mining horizon. Depending on the orebody geometry, further bench-and-fill lifts may be developed and mined above the initial benching horizon. Following mucking, bench stopes are backfilled with rock fill, hydraulic fill, paste fill or a combination of fill types (e.g. Been et al., 2002, Villaescusa and Kuganathan, 1998). Clearly, the permissible stope sizes, the support and reinforcement required for the accesses and the drilling and extraction drives, the lengths of hangingwall that can be left unsupported, and the mining sequence including the filling sequence, will all depend on the geotechnical conditions, their understanding and management. Because of these factors, the bench-and-fill method may be used at a number of scales and with a number of variants. In some parts of the world, it has become the preferred method of narrow vein mining, for example. 12.4.7 Longwall mining Longwall mining is the preferred method of mining a flat-lying stratiform orebody when a high area extraction ratio is required and a pillar mining method is precluded. The method is applicable to both metalliferous mining in a hard-rock environment and coal mining in soft rock. In both mining situations, the method preserves continuous behaviour of the far-field rock. Different modes of response are induced in the stope near-field rock. For both cases, longwall mining requires an orebody dip of less than 20 ◦ , with a reasonably uniform distribution of grade over the plane of the orebody. A high degree of continuity of the orebody is necessary. A particular structural geological requirement is that the throw of any faults transgressing a mining block must be less than the thickness of the orebody. In hard-rock mining, the stoping method seeks to maintain pseudo-continuous behaviour of the near-field rock mass, although significant fracturing may be induced in the stope peripheral rock. Thus a basic requirement is that the orebody footwall and hangingwall rocks be strong and structurally competent. The schematic representation of the method shown in Figure 12.11 indicates the main elements of the operation. Mining advances along strike by blasting rock from the face of a stope panel. Ore is drawn by scraper down dip into a transport gully, excavated in the foot wall, through which it may be scraped to an ore pass. Temporary support, perhaps provided by yielding props, is emplaced near the mining face, while resilient supports, such as 363
Figure 12.11 Key elements of longwall mining in hard rock (after Hamrin, 2001). MINING METHODS AND METHOD SELECTION timber and concrete brick packs, are constructed in the void behind the face. Both support measures are designed to prevent the development, near the working area, of discontinuous behaviour in the stope peripheral rock. The principle of longwall mining in hard rock has been discussed in section 10.8. Considering an isolated longwall stope as a single slot, deflection and closure of the foot wall and hanging wall occur as mining advances. After contact is established between the stope wall rocks, the state of stress around the working area of a single stope is invariant during further stope advance. Stable ground conditions in the working area can then be maintained by emplacement of comparatively light but resilient support in the active mining domain. Longwall mining in coal seams follows a somewhat different principle from that employed in hard-rock mining. The operations and equipment applied in the method are illustrated in Figure 12.12. The coal is won, and the stope face advanced, by mechanically ploughing or shearing the coal seam by translation of the cutting device parallel to the stope face. This operation simultaneously loads the broken coal on to an armoured conveyor, by which it is transported to the roadway lying parallel to the direction of face advance. All face operations take place within a working domain protected by a set of hydraulic roof supports. Since the load capacity of the powered supports is always small compared with the overburden load, the local performance of roof rock adjacent to mining activity needs to be examined closely. The geomechanical phenomenology of longwall coal mining, illustrated in Figure 12.12, reflects quite different modes of induced behaviour of the immediate roof rock of the seam and of the main roof stratum. The undermined immediate roof rock for the 364
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Rock Mechanics
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Rock Mechanics for underground mini
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Contents Preface to the third editi
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CONTENTS 9 Excavation design in blo
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CONTENTS ix Appendix A Basic constr
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PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION Mining
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PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION In th
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PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION design
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Safety in Mines Re
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Figure 1.1 (a) Pre-mining condition
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ROCK MECHANICS AND MINING ENGINEERI
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Figure 1.4 Principal features of a
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10 Figure 1.5 Definition of activit
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Figure 1.7 Components and logic of
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Figure 2.1 (a) A finite body subjec
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Figure 2.2 Free-body diagram for es
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STRESS AND INFINITESIMAL STRAIN As
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STRESS AND INFINITESIMAL STRAIN In
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Figure 2.3 Free-body diagram for de
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Figure 2.5 Problem geometry for det
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Figure 2.7 Rigid-body rotation of a
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STRESS AND INFINITESIMAL STRAIN the
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STRESS AND INFINITESIMAL STRAIN str
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⎡ ⎢ ⎣ xx yy zz xy yz zx STRES
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Figure 2.11 Cylindrical polar coord
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STRESS AND INFINITESIMAL STRAIN fre
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Figure 2.13 Construction of a Mohr
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STRESS AND INFINITESIMAL STRAIN fun
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3 Rock Figure 3.1 Sidewall failure
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Figure 3.2 Jointing in a folded str
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Figure 3.5 Diagrammatic longitudina
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Figure 3.7 Discontinuity spacing hi
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Figure 3.9 Illustration of persiste
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Figure 3.11 Typical roughness profi
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ROCK MASS STRUCTURE AND CHARACTERIS
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Figure 3.17 Sample number vs. preci
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Figure 3.19 Diagrammatic illustrati
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Figure 3.20 Computerised depiction
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Figure 3.23 Stereographic projectio
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Figure 3.26 Polar stereographic net
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Figure 3.28 Contours of pole concen
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Figure 3.30 Geological Strength Ind
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Figure 4.1 Idealised illustration o
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ROCK STRENGTH AND DEFORMABILITY wit
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Figure 4.4 Influence of end restrai
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ROCK STRENGTH AND DEFORMABILITY whe
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Figure 4.8 Principle of closed-loop
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Figure 4.12 Two classes of stress-
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Figure 4.14 Point load test apparat
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Figure 4.15 Biaxial compression tes
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Figure 4.18 Results of triaxial com
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ROCK STRENGTH AND DEFORMABILITY was
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Figure 4.23 Coulomb strength envelo
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Figure 4.25 Extension of a preexist
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Figure 4.29 The three basic modes o
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Figure 4.30 Normalised peak strengt
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ROCK STRENGTH AND DEFORMABILITY Tab
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Figure 4.32 The normality condition
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Figure 4.33 Variation of peak princ
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Figure 4.35 Direct shear test confi
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Figure 4.37 Shear stress-shear disp
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Figure 4.40 Peak and residual effec
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Figure 4.43 Effect of shearing dire
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Figure 4.45 Relations between norma
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Figure 4.47 Coulomb friction, linea
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ROCK STRENGTH AND DEFORMABILITY whe
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Figure 4.49 Composite peak strength
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Figure 4.50 Hoek-Brown peak strengt
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Figure 4.52 Determination of the Yo
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ROCK STRENGTH AND DEFORMABILITY 4 A
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5 Pre-mining Figure 5.1 Method of s
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Figure 5.2 The effect of irregular
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PRE-MINING STATE OF STRESS surround
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PRE-MINING STATE OF STRESS induced
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Figure 5.5 (a) Definition of hole l
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Figure 5.6 (a) Core drilling a slot
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Figure 5.7 Principles of stress mea
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PRE-MINING STATE OF STRESS strength
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PRE-MINING STATE OF STRESS A second
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PRE-MINING STATE OF STRESS by the e
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PRE-MINING STATE OF STRESS extend i
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PRE-MINING STATE OF STRESS (d) Dete
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METHODS OF STRESS ANALYSIS quantita
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METHODS OF STRESS ANALYSIS It is in
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Figure 6.2 A thick-walled cylinder
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METHODS OF STRESS ANALYSIS For the
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Figure 6.3 Problem geometry, coordi
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Figure 6.4 Problem geometry, coordi
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METHODS OF STRESS ANALYSIS When the
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Figure 6.5 Superposition scheme dem
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METHODS OF STRESS ANALYSIS The disc
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Figure 6.7 Development of a finite
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METHODS OF STRESS ANALYSIS Solution
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Figure 6.8 A simple finite element
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Figure 6.9 A schematic representati
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METHODS OF STRESS ANALYSIS block ce
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METHODS OF STRESS ANALYSIS where ˚
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METHODS OF STRESS ANALYSIS The prin
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EXCAVATION DESIGN IN MASSIVE ELASTI
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Figure 7.2 A logical framework for
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Figure 7.3 (a) Axisymmetric stress
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Figure 7.6 A plane of weakness, ori
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Figure 7.8 A flat-lying plane of we
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Figure 7.10 Shear stress/normal str
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Figure 7.12 Ovaloidal opening in a
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Figure 7.15 States of stress at sel
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Figure 7.16 Prediction of the exten
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Figure 7.18 Contour plots of princi
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Figure 7.19 Problem geometry for de
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8 Excavation Figure 8.1 An excavati
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EXCAVATION DESIGN IN STRATIFIED ROC
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Figure 8.4 Experimental apparatus f
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Figure 8.7 Free body diagrams and n
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Figure 8.8 Assumed distributions of
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Figure 8.9 Flow chart for the deter
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Figure 8.10 Normalised arch thickne
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EXCAVATION DESIGN IN STRATIFIED ROC
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Figure 8.11 Normalised deflection a
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9 Excavation Figure 9.1 Generation
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Figure 9.3 (a) A finite, non-tapere
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(a) (b) Figure 9.4 (a) Vertical cro
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(a) (b) (c) EP EP Reference circle
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Figure 9.10 JP 100 is the only JP w
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Figure 9.12 Traces of the views of
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EXCAVATION DESIGN IN BLOCKY ROCK In
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Figure 9.14 Free-body diagrams of a
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EXCAVATION DESIGN IN BLOCKY ROCK di
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Figure 9.16 Symmetrical wedge in th
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Figure 9.17 (a) Geometry for determ
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Figure 9.18 Problem geometry demons
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Figure 9.20 Cut-and-fill stope mine
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Figure 9.22 Chart to determine fact
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EXCAVATION DESIGN IN BLOCKY ROCK Th
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Figure 10.1 (a) Pre-mining state of
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Figure 10.3 (a) Dynamic loading of
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Figure 10.5 (a) Pre-mining and (b)
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Figure 10.6 Problem definition and
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ENERGY, MINE STABILITY, MINE SEISMI
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Figure 10.9 Force and stress compon
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Figure 10.12 Distribution of radial
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Figure 10.15 Problem geometry for d
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Figure 10.17 (a) Schematic represen
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Figure 10.20 Elastic/post-peak stif
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Figure 10.24 Relation between frequ
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Figure 10.28 Six possible ways that
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Figure 10.29 First motions for P an
Page 329 and 330: 11Rock support and reinforcement 11
Page 331 and 332: Figure 11.1 (a) Hypothetical exampl
Page 333 and 334: Figure 11.4 Non-linear support reac
Page 335 and 336: Figure 11.5 Idealised elastic-britt
Page 337 and 338: Figure 11.6 Calculated required sup
Page 339 and 340: ROCK SUPPORT AND REINFORCEMENT The
Page 341 and 342: Figure 11.9 Ground reaction curves
Page 343 and 344: Figure 11.12 Use of grouted reinfor
Page 345 and 346: ROCK SUPPORT AND REINFORCEMENT If,
Page 347 and 348: Figure 11.16 Local reinforcement ac
Page 349 and 350: Figure 11.18 Typical working sketch
Page 351 and 352: Figure 11.19 Permanent support and
Page 353 and 354: Figure 11.22 Basis of natural coord
Page 355 and 356: Figure 11.24 Distributions of (a) s
Page 357 and 358: Figure 11.26 Resin grouted rockbolt
Page 359 and 360: Figure 11.28 Alternative methods of
Page 361 and 362: ROCK SUPPORT AND REINFORCEMENT Tabl
Page 363 and 364: Figure 11.31 Toussaint-Heintzmann y
Page 365 and 366: MINING METHODS AND METHOD SELECTION
Page 367 and 368: Figure 12.2 Elements of a supported
Page 375 and 376: Figure 12.6 Schematic layout for bi
Page 377 and 378: Figure 12.8 Layout for shrink stopi
Page 379: Figure 12.9 Schematic layout for VC
Page 383 and 384: Figure 12.13 Mining layout for tran
Page 387 and 388: 13 Figure 13.1 Schematic illustrati
Page 389 and 390: Figure 13.3 Layout of barrier pilla
Page 391 and 392: Figure 13.5 Principal modes of defo
Page 393 and 394: Figure 13.8 Geometry for tributary
Page 395 and 396: PILLAR SUPPORTED MINING METHODS str
Page 397 and 398: Figure 13.10 Distribution of vertic
Page 399 and 400: Figure 13.12 Pillar behaviour domai
Page 401 and 402: PILLAR SUPPORTED MINING METHODS Lun
Page 403 and 404: Figure 13.15 Options in the design
Page 405 and 406: Figure 13.17 Relation between yield
Page 407 and 408: Figure 13.19 Model of yield of coun
Page 409 and 410: Figure 13.20 North-south vertical c
Page 411 and 412: Figure 13.23 Stope-and-pillar layou
Page 413 and 414: Figure 13.25 Calibrated stability c
Page 415 and 416: PILLAR SUPPORTED MINING METHODS wor
Page 417 and 418: Figure 13.28 Pillar performance, de
Page 419 and 420: Figure 13.29 (a) Stope and pillar l
Page 421 and 422: Figure 13.31 (a) Plane strain analy
Page 423 and 424: PILLAR SUPPORTED MINING METHODS Pan
Page 425 and 426: 14 Artificially supported mining me
Page 427 and 428: ARTIFICIALLY SUPPORTED MINING METHO
Page 429 and 430: ARTIFICIALLY SUPPORTED MINING METHO
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Figure 14.2 Simplified view of stru
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ARTIFICIALLY SUPPORTED MINING METHO
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Figure 14.5 Confined block model fo
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Figure 14.7 Crown and sidewall stre
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Figure 14.10 Sublevel open stoping
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Figure 14.12 Some applications of c
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15 Longwall and caving mining metho
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Figure 15.2 Shear stress drop in th
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LONGWALL AND CAVING MINING METHODS
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Figure 15.6 Hydraulic prop reaction
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Figure 15.7 Development and extract
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Figure 15.8 Vertical stress redistr
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Figure 15.11 Distribution of observ
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Figure 15.13 Plan view of microseis
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Figure 15.16 Ground-support interac
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Figure 15.18 Roadway support and re
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Figure 15.25 Comparison of isolated
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Figure 15.26 Geometry of a sublevel
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Figure 15.28 Theoretical determinat
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Figure 15.31 Deterioration of a cro
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Figure 15.32 Distinct element simul
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Figure 15.34 Extended Mathews stabi
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Figure 15.36 Comparison of postand
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Figure 15.39 Idealised plan illustr
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Figure 15.41 Idealised vertical sec
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Figure 15.42 Vertical slice through
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16 Figure 16.1 Trough subsidence ov
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MINING-INDUCED SURFACE SUBSIDENCE c
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Figure 16.4 North-south section, At
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Figure 16.6 (a) Rectangular block g
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MINING-INDUCED SURFACE SUBSIDENCE f
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Figure 16.8 Relation between stope
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MINING-INDUCED SURFACE SUBSIDENCE M
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MINING-INDUCED SURFACE SUBSIDENCE
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Figure 16.14 Chart developed to est
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Figure 16.16 Progressive hangingwal
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Figure 16.19 Idealised model used i
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Figure 16.21 Longitudinal section,
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MINING-INDUCED SURFACE SUBSIDENCE t
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MINING-INDUCED SURFACE SUBSIDENCE w
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MINING-INDUCED SURFACE SUBSIDENCE F
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Figure 16.25 Subsidence troughs pre
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Figure 16.28 Predicted and measured
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17 Blasting mechanics 17.1 Blasting
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Figure 17.1 An empirical matching o
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Figure 17.2 A finite difference mod
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Figure 17.4 Reflection of a cylindr
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BLASTING MECHANICS means that no ci
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Figure 17.8 Layout of blast holes i
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Figure 17.9 Influence of field stat
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Figure 17.11 Generation of surface
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BLASTING MECHANICS The components o
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BLASTING MECHANICS amplitudes of th
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BLASTING MECHANICS 17.9 Evaluation
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Figure 17.15 (a) Schematic cross se
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BLASTING MECHANICS in Figure 17.17,
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MONITORING ROCK MASS PERFORMANCE (a
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MONITORING ROCK MASS PERFORMANCE su
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MONITORING ROCK MASS PERFORMANCE Ta
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Figure 18.2 The Distometer ISETH, a
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Figure 18.5 Self-inductance multipl
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MONITORING ROCK MASS PERFORMANCE is
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Figure 18.9 Biaxial vibrating wire
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MONITORING ROCK MASS PERFORMANCE me
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Figure 18.12 Cross section at 6650N
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Figure 18.13 Examples of convergenc
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Figure 18.15 Longitudinal section l
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Figure 18.16 (Cont.) MONITORING ROC
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Appendix A Basic constructions usin
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Figure A.3 Determining the angle be
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APPENDIX A USE OF HEMISPHERICAL PRO
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APPENDIX B STRESSES AND DISPLACEMEN
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Figure A.6 Axisymmetric tunnel prob
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Figure A.9 Bolt load-extension curv
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APPENDIX D LIMITING EQUILIBRIUM ANA
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ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS 2 (a) 0.087 - 0
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ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS 3 wp = 38.6 m,
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REFERENCES Symp. & 17th Tunn. Assn
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REFERENCES Brady, B. H. G. and Bray
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REFERENCES Collier, P. A. (1993) De
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REFERENCES Drescher, A. and Vardoul
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REFERENCES Gustafsson, P. (1998) Wa
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REFERENCES Hood, M. and Brown, E. T
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REFERENCES Kaiser, P. K. and Tannan
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REFERENCES Lorig, L. J. and Brady,
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REFERENCES Ortlepp, W. D. (1994) Gr
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REFERENCES Rojas, E., Molina, R. an
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REFERENCES Spottiswoode, S. M. and
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REFERENCES Villaescusa, E., Windsor
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Index Page numbers appearing in bol
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INDEX Coulomb (cont.) parameters 96
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INDEX Excavation (cont.) support ra
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INDEX Jaeger’s plane of weakness
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INDEX Panel caving 470-2, 473, 474,
Page 641 and 642:
INDEX Seismic (cont.) moment 306, 3
Page 643 and 644:
INDEX Strength (cont.) residual 86,
Page 645:
INDEX United States (USA) 395, 396,
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