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REFERENCES Priest, S. D. (1985) Hemispherical Projection Method in Rock Mechanics. Allen & Unwin: London. Priest, S. D (1993) Discontinuity Analysis for Rock Engineering. Chapman & Hall: London. Priest, S. D. and Hudson, J. A. (1976) Discontinuity spacings in rock. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., 13(5): 135–48. Priest, S. D. and Hudson, J. A. (1981) Estimation of discontinuity spacing and trace length using scanline surveys. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., 18(3): 183–97. Proctor, R. J. and White, T. L. (1977) Rock Tunnelling with Steel Supports, rev. edn. Commercial Shearing and Stamping Co.: Youngstown, Ohio. Quinteiro, C. R., Larsson, L. and Hustrulid, W. A. (2001) Theory and practice of very-large-scale sublevel caving. Underground Mining Methods: Engineering Fundamentals and International Case Studies (eds W. A. Hustrulid and R. L. Bullock), 381–84. Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration: Littleton, Colorado. Rachmad, L. and Sulaeman, A. (2002) Cave management practice at PT Freeport Indonesia’s block caving mines. Mining and Tunnelling Innovation and Opportunity, Proc. 5th North Am. Rock Mech. Symp. & 17th Tunn. Assn Can. Conf., Toronto (eds R. Hammah, W. Bawden, J. Curran and M. Telesnicki), 1: 189–93. Univ. Toronto Press: Toronto. Rachmad, L. and Widijanto, E. (2002) Application of convergence monitoring at PT Freeport Indonesia’s deep ore zone mine. Mining and Tunnelling Innovation and Opportunity, Proc. 5th North Am. Rock Mech. Symp. & 17th Tunn. Assn Can. Conf., Toronto (eds R. Hammah, W. Bawden, J. Curran and M. Telesnicki), 1: 181–88. Univ. Toronto Press: Toronto. Rachmad, L., Widijanto, E. and Sinaga, F. (2002) An empirical review of extraction bolting design in Deep Ore Zone Mine PT Freeport Indonesia. Growing Our Underground Operations, Proc. 8th AusIMM Underground Operators’ Conf., Townsville, 249–54. Aust. Inst. Min. Metall.: Melbourne. Ran, J. J., Seldon, S. C. and Counter, D. B. (2002) Undergound mining induced remobilization of a hangingwall wedge and movement of footwall structures at Kidd Mine – a case study. Mining and Tunnelling Innovation and Opportunity, Proc. 5th North Am. Rock Mech. Symp. & 17th Tunn. Assn Can. Conf., Toronto (eds R. Hammah, W. Bawden, J. Curran and M. Telesnicki), 1: 297–304. Univ. Toronto Press: Toronto. Reinecker, J., Heidbach, O. and Mueller, B. (2003) The 2003 release of the World Stress Map. (Available online at www.world-stress-map.org). Rice, G. S. (1934) Ground movement from mining in Brier Hill Mine, Norway, Mich. Trans Am. Inst. Min. Metall. Engrs, 109: 118–44. Richardson, A. M., Brown, S. M., Hustrulid, W. A. and Richardson, D. L. (1986) An interpretation of highly scattered stress measurements in foliated gneiss. Proc. Int. Symp. on Rock Stress and Rock Stress Measurement, Stockholm (ed. O. Stephansson), 441–8. Centek: Lule˚a. Richardson, M. P. (1981) Area of draw influence and drawpoint spacing for block caving mines. Design and Operation of Caving and Sublevel Stoping Mines (ed. D. R. Stewart), 149–56. Soc. Min. Engrs: AIME, New York. Richter, C. F. (1935) An instrumental earthquake magnitude scale. Bull. Seism. Soc. Am., 25: 1–32. Roberts, A. (1977) Geotechnology. Pergamon: Oxford. Roberts, D. P., Lane, W. L. and Yanske, T. R. (1998) Pillar extraction at the Doe Run Company. Minefill ’98, Proc. 6th Int. Symp. Mining with Backfill, Brisbane (ed. M. Bloss), 227–33. Aus. Inst. Min. Metall.: Melbourne. Roberts, M. K. C. and Brummer, R. K. (1988) Support requirements in rockburst conditions. J. S. Afr. Inst. Min. Metall., 88(3): 97–104. Robinson, L. H. (1959) The effect of pore and confining pressure on the failure process in sedimentary rock. Q. Colo. School Mines, 54(3): 177–99. Rocscience (1999) DIPS – Data Interpretation Package Using Stereographic Projection Software. Rocscience Inc.: Toronto. Roegiers, J-C. (1989) Elements of rock mechanics. Reservoir Stimulation (M. J. Economides and K. G. Nolte), 2.1–2.21. Prentice-Hall: Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. Rojas, E., Cavieres, P., Dunlop, R. and Gaete, S. (2000) Control of induced seismicity at El Teniente Mine, Codelco-Chile. Proc. MassMin 2000, Brisbane (ed. G. Chitombo), 755–84. Aust. Inst. Min. Metall.: Melbourne. Rojas, E., Molina, R., Bonani, A. and Constanzo, H. (2000) The pre-undercut caving method at the El Teniente Mine, Codelco Chile. Proc. MassMin 2000, Brisbane (ed. G. Chitombo), 261–66. Aust. Inst. Min. Metall.: Melbourne. 607
REFERENCES Rojas, E., Molina, R. and Cavieres, P. (2001) Preundercut caving in El Teniente, Chile. Underground Mining Methods: Engineering Fundamentals and International Case Studies (eds W. A. Hustrulid and R. L. Bullock), 417–23. Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration: Littleton, Colorado. Rorke, A. J. and Roering, C. (1984) Source mechanism studies of mining-induced seismic events in a deep-level gold mine. Rockbursts and Seismicity in Mines (eds N. C. Gay and E. H. Wainwright), 51–6. S. Afr. Inst. Min. Metall.: Johannesburg. Rosengren, K. J. (1968) Rock Mechanics of the Black Star Open Cut, Mount Isa. PhD thesis, Australian National University, Canberra. Rosengren, K. J. (1970) Diamond drilling for structural purposes at Mount Isa. Ind. Diamond Rev., 30(359): 388–95. Roux, A. J. A., Leeman, E. R. and Denkhaus, H. G. (1957) De-stressing: a means of ameliorating rock-burst conditions. Part I – the conception of de-stressing and the results obtained from its application. J. S. Afr. Inst. Min. Metall., 58: 101–19. Rudnicki, J. W. and Rice, J.R. (1975) Conditions for the localization of deformation in pressure-sensitive dilatant materials. J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 23(6): 371–94. Ruina, A. (1983) Slip instability and state variable friction laws. J. Geophys. Res., 88(B12): 10359–70. Rustan, A. (2000) Gravity flow of broken rock – what is known and unknown. Proc. MassMin 2000, Brisbane (ed. G. Chitombo), 557–67. Aust. Inst. Min. Metall.: Melbourne. Ryder, J. A. (1987) Excess shear stress (ESS): an engineering criterion for assessing unstable slip and associated rockburst hazards. Proc. 6th Congr., Int. Soc. Rock Mech., Montreal (eds G. Herget and S. Vongpaisal), 2: 1211–15, A.A. Balkema: Rotterdam. Ryder, J. A. and Jager, A. J. (eds) (2002) A Textbook on Rock Mechanics for Tabular Hard Rock Mines. SIMRAC: Johannesburg. St John, C. M. and Van Dillen, D. E. (1983) Rockbolts: a new numerical representation and its application in tunnel design. Rock Mechanics – Theory – Experiment – Practice, Proc. 24th U. S. Symp. Rock Mech., College Station, 13–26. AEG: New York. St John, C. M. and Zahrah, T. F. (1987) Aseismic design of underground structures. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 2(2): 165– 97. Salamon, M. D. G. (1964) Elastic analysis of displacements and stresses induced by mining of seam or reef deposits. Part II. J. S . Afr. Inst. Min. Metall., 64: 197–218. Salamon, M. D. G. (1967) A method of designing bord and pillar workings. J. S. Afr. Inst. Min. Metall., 68: 68–78. Salamon, M. D. G. (1970) Stability, instability and the design of pillar workings. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci., 7(6): 613–31. Salamon, M. D. G. (1974) Rock mechanics of underground excavations. Advances in Rock Mechanics, Proc. 3rd Congr., Int. Soc. Rock Mech., Denver, 1B: 951–1099. Nat. Acad. Sci.: Washington, DC. Salamon, M. D. G. (1983) Rockburst hazard and the fight for its alleviation in South African gold mines. Rockbursts: Prediction and Control, 11–36. Instn Min. Metall.: London. Salamon, M. D. G. (1991) Displacements and stresses induced by longwall coal mining. Proc. 7th Congr., Int. Soc. Rock Mech., Aachen (ed. W. Wittke), 2: 1199–1202. A. A. Balkema: Rotterdam. Salamon, M. D. G. and Munro, A. H. (1967) A study of the strength of coal pillars. J. S. Afr. Inst. Min. Metall., 68(2): 55–67. Salamon, M. D. G. and Wagner, H. (1979) Role of stabilising pillars in alleviating rockburst hazard in deep mines. Proc. 4th Congr., Int. Soc. Rock Mech., Montreux, 2:561–6. Salamon, M. D. G. and Wiebols, G. A. (1974) Digital location of seismic events by an underground network of seismometers using arrival times of compressional waves. Rock Mech., 6(3): 141–66. Salehy, M. R., Money, M. S. and Dearman, W. R. (1977) The occurrence and engineering properties of intra-formational shears in Carboniferous rocks. Proc. Conf. Rock Engng, Newcastle (ed. P. B. Attewell), 311–28. Univ. Newcastle upon Tyne: Newcastle upon Tyne. Sarin, D. K. (1981) A review of sub-level caving practices in Canada. Design and Operation of Caving and Sublevel Stoping Mines (ed. D. R. Stewart), 373–85. Soc. Min. Engrs, AIME: New York. Sauer, G. and B. Sharma (1977) A system for stress measurement in construction in rock. Field Measurements in Rock Mechanics, Proc. Int. Symp., Zurich (ed. K. Kovari), 1: 317–29. A. A. Balkema: Rotterdam. Savin, G. N. (1961) Stress Concentrations Around Holes. Pergamon: London. Schepers, R., Rafat, G., Gelbke, C. and Lehmann, B. (2001) Application of borehole logging, core imaging and tomography to geotechnical exploration. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci., 38(6): 867–76. 608
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Rock Mechanics
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Rock Mechanics for underground mini
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Contents Preface to the third editi
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CONTENTS 9 Excavation design in blo
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CONTENTS ix Appendix A Basic constr
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PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION Mining
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PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION In th
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PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION design
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Safety in Mines Re
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Figure 1.1 (a) Pre-mining condition
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ROCK MECHANICS AND MINING ENGINEERI
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Figure 1.4 Principal features of a
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10 Figure 1.5 Definition of activit
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Figure 1.7 Components and logic of
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Figure 2.1 (a) A finite body subjec
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Figure 2.2 Free-body diagram for es
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STRESS AND INFINITESIMAL STRAIN As
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STRESS AND INFINITESIMAL STRAIN In
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Figure 2.3 Free-body diagram for de
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Figure 2.5 Problem geometry for det
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Figure 2.7 Rigid-body rotation of a
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STRESS AND INFINITESIMAL STRAIN the
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STRESS AND INFINITESIMAL STRAIN str
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⎡ ⎢ ⎣ xx yy zz xy yz zx STRES
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Figure 2.11 Cylindrical polar coord
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STRESS AND INFINITESIMAL STRAIN fre
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Figure 2.13 Construction of a Mohr
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STRESS AND INFINITESIMAL STRAIN fun
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3 Rock Figure 3.1 Sidewall failure
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Figure 3.2 Jointing in a folded str
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Figure 3.5 Diagrammatic longitudina
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Figure 3.7 Discontinuity spacing hi
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Figure 3.9 Illustration of persiste
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Figure 3.11 Typical roughness profi
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ROCK MASS STRUCTURE AND CHARACTERIS
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Figure 3.17 Sample number vs. preci
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Figure 3.19 Diagrammatic illustrati
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Figure 3.20 Computerised depiction
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Figure 3.23 Stereographic projectio
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Figure 3.26 Polar stereographic net
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Figure 3.28 Contours of pole concen
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Figure 3.30 Geological Strength Ind
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Figure 4.1 Idealised illustration o
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ROCK STRENGTH AND DEFORMABILITY wit
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Figure 4.4 Influence of end restrai
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ROCK STRENGTH AND DEFORMABILITY whe
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Figure 4.8 Principle of closed-loop
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Figure 4.12 Two classes of stress-
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Figure 4.14 Point load test apparat
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Figure 4.15 Biaxial compression tes
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Figure 4.18 Results of triaxial com
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ROCK STRENGTH AND DEFORMABILITY was
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Figure 4.23 Coulomb strength envelo
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Figure 4.25 Extension of a preexist
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Figure 4.29 The three basic modes o
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Figure 4.30 Normalised peak strengt
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ROCK STRENGTH AND DEFORMABILITY Tab
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Figure 4.32 The normality condition
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Figure 4.33 Variation of peak princ
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Figure 4.35 Direct shear test confi
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Figure 4.37 Shear stress-shear disp
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Figure 4.40 Peak and residual effec
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Figure 4.43 Effect of shearing dire
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Figure 4.45 Relations between norma
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Figure 4.47 Coulomb friction, linea
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ROCK STRENGTH AND DEFORMABILITY whe
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Figure 4.49 Composite peak strength
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Figure 4.50 Hoek-Brown peak strengt
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Figure 4.52 Determination of the Yo
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ROCK STRENGTH AND DEFORMABILITY 4 A
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5 Pre-mining Figure 5.1 Method of s
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Figure 5.2 The effect of irregular
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PRE-MINING STATE OF STRESS surround
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PRE-MINING STATE OF STRESS induced
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Figure 5.5 (a) Definition of hole l
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Figure 5.6 (a) Core drilling a slot
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Figure 5.7 Principles of stress mea
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PRE-MINING STATE OF STRESS strength
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PRE-MINING STATE OF STRESS A second
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PRE-MINING STATE OF STRESS by the e
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PRE-MINING STATE OF STRESS extend i
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PRE-MINING STATE OF STRESS (d) Dete
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METHODS OF STRESS ANALYSIS quantita
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METHODS OF STRESS ANALYSIS It is in
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Figure 6.2 A thick-walled cylinder
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METHODS OF STRESS ANALYSIS For the
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Figure 6.3 Problem geometry, coordi
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Figure 6.4 Problem geometry, coordi
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METHODS OF STRESS ANALYSIS When the
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Figure 6.5 Superposition scheme dem
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METHODS OF STRESS ANALYSIS The disc
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Figure 6.7 Development of a finite
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METHODS OF STRESS ANALYSIS Solution
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Figure 6.8 A simple finite element
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Figure 6.9 A schematic representati
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METHODS OF STRESS ANALYSIS block ce
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METHODS OF STRESS ANALYSIS where ˚
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METHODS OF STRESS ANALYSIS The prin
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EXCAVATION DESIGN IN MASSIVE ELASTI
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Figure 7.2 A logical framework for
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Figure 7.3 (a) Axisymmetric stress
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Figure 7.6 A plane of weakness, ori
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Figure 7.8 A flat-lying plane of we
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Figure 7.10 Shear stress/normal str
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Figure 7.12 Ovaloidal opening in a
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Figure 7.15 States of stress at sel
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Figure 7.16 Prediction of the exten
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Figure 7.18 Contour plots of princi
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Figure 7.19 Problem geometry for de
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8 Excavation Figure 8.1 An excavati
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EXCAVATION DESIGN IN STRATIFIED ROC
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Figure 8.4 Experimental apparatus f
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Figure 8.7 Free body diagrams and n
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Figure 8.8 Assumed distributions of
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Figure 8.9 Flow chart for the deter
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Figure 8.10 Normalised arch thickne
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EXCAVATION DESIGN IN STRATIFIED ROC
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Figure 8.11 Normalised deflection a
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9 Excavation Figure 9.1 Generation
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Figure 9.3 (a) A finite, non-tapere
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(a) (b) Figure 9.4 (a) Vertical cro
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(a) (b) (c) EP EP Reference circle
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Figure 9.10 JP 100 is the only JP w
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Figure 9.12 Traces of the views of
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EXCAVATION DESIGN IN BLOCKY ROCK In
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Figure 9.14 Free-body diagrams of a
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EXCAVATION DESIGN IN BLOCKY ROCK di
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Figure 9.16 Symmetrical wedge in th
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Figure 9.17 (a) Geometry for determ
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Figure 9.18 Problem geometry demons
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Figure 9.20 Cut-and-fill stope mine
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Figure 9.22 Chart to determine fact
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EXCAVATION DESIGN IN BLOCKY ROCK Th
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Figure 10.1 (a) Pre-mining state of
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Figure 10.3 (a) Dynamic loading of
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Figure 10.5 (a) Pre-mining and (b)
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Figure 10.6 Problem definition and
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ENERGY, MINE STABILITY, MINE SEISMI
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Figure 10.9 Force and stress compon
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Figure 10.12 Distribution of radial
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Figure 10.15 Problem geometry for d
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Figure 10.17 (a) Schematic represen
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Figure 10.20 Elastic/post-peak stif
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Figure 10.24 Relation between frequ
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Figure 10.28 Six possible ways that
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Figure 10.29 First motions for P an
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11Rock support and reinforcement 11
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Figure 11.1 (a) Hypothetical exampl
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Figure 11.4 Non-linear support reac
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Figure 11.5 Idealised elastic-britt
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Figure 11.6 Calculated required sup
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ROCK SUPPORT AND REINFORCEMENT The
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Figure 11.9 Ground reaction curves
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Figure 11.12 Use of grouted reinfor
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ROCK SUPPORT AND REINFORCEMENT If,
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Figure 11.16 Local reinforcement ac
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Figure 11.18 Typical working sketch
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Figure 11.19 Permanent support and
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Figure 11.22 Basis of natural coord
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Figure 11.24 Distributions of (a) s
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Figure 11.26 Resin grouted rockbolt
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Figure 11.28 Alternative methods of
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ROCK SUPPORT AND REINFORCEMENT Tabl
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Figure 11.31 Toussaint-Heintzmann y
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MINING METHODS AND METHOD SELECTION
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Figure 12.2 Elements of a supported
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Figure 12.6 Schematic layout for bi
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Figure 12.8 Layout for shrink stopi
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Figure 12.9 Schematic layout for VC
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Figure 12.11 Key elements of longwa
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Figure 12.13 Mining layout for tran
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13 Figure 13.1 Schematic illustrati
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Figure 13.3 Layout of barrier pilla
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Figure 13.5 Principal modes of defo
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Figure 13.8 Geometry for tributary
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PILLAR SUPPORTED MINING METHODS str
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Figure 13.10 Distribution of vertic
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Figure 13.12 Pillar behaviour domai
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PILLAR SUPPORTED MINING METHODS Lun
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Figure 13.15 Options in the design
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Figure 13.17 Relation between yield
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Figure 13.19 Model of yield of coun
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Figure 13.20 North-south vertical c
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Figure 13.23 Stope-and-pillar layou
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Figure 13.25 Calibrated stability c
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PILLAR SUPPORTED MINING METHODS wor
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Figure 13.28 Pillar performance, de
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Figure 13.29 (a) Stope and pillar l
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Figure 13.31 (a) Plane strain analy
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PILLAR SUPPORTED MINING METHODS Pan
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14 Artificially supported mining me
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ARTIFICIALLY SUPPORTED MINING METHO
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Figure 14.2 Simplified view of stru
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Figure 14.5 Confined block model fo
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Figure 14.7 Crown and sidewall stre
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Figure 14.10 Sublevel open stoping
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Figure 14.12 Some applications of c
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15 Longwall and caving mining metho
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Figure 15.2 Shear stress drop in th
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LONGWALL AND CAVING MINING METHODS
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Figure 15.6 Hydraulic prop reaction
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Figure 15.7 Development and extract
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Figure 15.8 Vertical stress redistr
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Figure 15.11 Distribution of observ
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Figure 15.13 Plan view of microseis
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Figure 15.16 Ground-support interac
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Figure 15.18 Roadway support and re
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Figure 15.25 Comparison of isolated
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Figure 15.26 Geometry of a sublevel
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Figure 15.28 Theoretical determinat
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Figure 15.31 Deterioration of a cro
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Figure 15.32 Distinct element simul
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Figure 15.34 Extended Mathews stabi
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Figure 15.36 Comparison of postand
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Figure 15.39 Idealised plan illustr
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Figure 15.41 Idealised vertical sec
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Figure 15.42 Vertical slice through
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16 Figure 16.1 Trough subsidence ov
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MINING-INDUCED SURFACE SUBSIDENCE c
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Figure 16.4 North-south section, At
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Figure 16.6 (a) Rectangular block g
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MINING-INDUCED SURFACE SUBSIDENCE f
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Figure 16.8 Relation between stope
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MINING-INDUCED SURFACE SUBSIDENCE M
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MINING-INDUCED SURFACE SUBSIDENCE
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Figure 16.14 Chart developed to est
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Figure 16.16 Progressive hangingwal
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Figure 16.19 Idealised model used i
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Figure 16.21 Longitudinal section,
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MINING-INDUCED SURFACE SUBSIDENCE t
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MINING-INDUCED SURFACE SUBSIDENCE w
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MINING-INDUCED SURFACE SUBSIDENCE F
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Figure 16.25 Subsidence troughs pre
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Figure 16.28 Predicted and measured
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17 Blasting mechanics 17.1 Blasting
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Figure 17.1 An empirical matching o
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Figure 17.2 A finite difference mod
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Figure 17.4 Reflection of a cylindr
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BLASTING MECHANICS means that no ci
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Figure 17.8 Layout of blast holes i
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Figure 17.9 Influence of field stat
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Figure 17.11 Generation of surface
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BLASTING MECHANICS The components o
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BLASTING MECHANICS amplitudes of th
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BLASTING MECHANICS 17.9 Evaluation
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Figure 17.15 (a) Schematic cross se
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BLASTING MECHANICS in Figure 17.17,
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MONITORING ROCK MASS PERFORMANCE (a
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MONITORING ROCK MASS PERFORMANCE su
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MONITORING ROCK MASS PERFORMANCE Ta
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Figure 18.2 The Distometer ISETH, a
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Figure 18.5 Self-inductance multipl
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MONITORING ROCK MASS PERFORMANCE is
Page 573 and 574: Figure 18.9 Biaxial vibrating wire
Page 575 and 576: MONITORING ROCK MASS PERFORMANCE me
Page 577 and 578: Figure 18.12 Cross section at 6650N
Page 579 and 580: Figure 18.13 Examples of convergenc
Page 581 and 582: Figure 18.15 Longitudinal section l
Page 583 and 584: Figure 18.16 (Cont.) MONITORING ROC
Page 585 and 586: Appendix A Basic constructions usin
Page 587 and 588: Figure A.3 Determining the angle be
Page 589 and 590: APPENDIX A USE OF HEMISPHERICAL PRO
Page 591 and 592: APPENDIX B STRESSES AND DISPLACEMEN
Page 593 and 594: Figure A.6 Axisymmetric tunnel prob
Page 595 and 596: Figure A.9 Bolt load-extension curv
Page 597 and 598: APPENDIX D LIMITING EQUILIBRIUM ANA
Page 603 and 604: ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS 2 (a) 0.087 - 0
Page 605 and 606: ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS 3 wp = 38.6 m,
Page 607 and 608: REFERENCES Symp. & 17th Tunn. Assn
Page 609 and 610: REFERENCES Brady, B. H. G. and Bray
Page 611 and 612: REFERENCES Collier, P. A. (1993) De
Page 613 and 614: REFERENCES Drescher, A. and Vardoul
Page 615 and 616: REFERENCES Gustafsson, P. (1998) Wa
Page 617 and 618: REFERENCES Hood, M. and Brown, E. T
Page 619 and 620: REFERENCES Kaiser, P. K. and Tannan
Page 621 and 622: REFERENCES Lorig, L. J. and Brady,
Page 623: REFERENCES Ortlepp, W. D. (1994) Gr
Page 627 and 628: REFERENCES Spottiswoode, S. M. and
Page 629 and 630: REFERENCES Villaescusa, E., Windsor
Page 631 and 632: Index Page numbers appearing in bol
Page 633 and 634: INDEX Coulomb (cont.) parameters 96
Page 635 and 636: INDEX Excavation (cont.) support ra
Page 637 and 638: INDEX Jaeger’s plane of weakness
Page 639 and 640: INDEX Panel caving 470-2, 473, 474,
Page 641 and 642: INDEX Seismic (cont.) moment 306, 3
Page 643 and 644: INDEX Strength (cont.) residual 86,
Page 645: INDEX United States (USA) 395, 396,
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