Rock Mechanics.pdf - Mining and Blasting

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BACKFILL PROPERTIES AND PLACEMENT Table 14.3 In situ properties of composite backfills (from Gonano, 1977). Fill type c ′ (MPa) ′ (deg) E (MPa) 8% cemented sandfill (CSF) 0.22 35 285 composite of 8% CSF and rockfill 0.60 35.4 280 simultaneous placement in a mine void of aggregate or similar dry rockfill and cemented sandfill can reduce the unit cost of filling the void with cohesive fill. This is achieved by reducing the total amount of cement addition, and extending the capacity of a backfill preparation plant to meet mine demand. The composite fill is placed by discharging cemented sandfill slurry and rockfill into the stope simultaneously. The variety of mechanical processes accompanying rockfill placement, including high-velocity impact and compaction, bouncing and rilling, lead to a highly heterogeneous fill mass. The structure of a composite of rockfill and cemented sandfill (with a rockfill/sandfill ratio at placement between two and three) has been described by Gonano (1975), and is illustrated schematically in Figure 14.2. The various zones, of different constitution and texture, and various degrees of cemented infilling of rockfill interstices, have different mechanical properties. For example, the zone with a porous, open structure is poorly cemented, with low cohesion. However, such a zone ensures that the interior of the fill mass can drain adequately during fill placement. The development of a highly heterogeneous fill mass, whose structure is controlled by placement conditions, indicates that, in practice, careful attention must be paid to location of discharge points into the stope void. For example, the generation of a poorly cemented zone near the surface of a pillar, which is to be recovered subsequently, would represent a failure in the fill design procedure. The varieties of compositions and structural domains in cemented rockfill make laboratory determination of their representative properties difficult. Gonano (1975, 1977) described the procedures used for large-scale, in situ determination of a wellcemented zone in a composite cemented sandfill/rockfill mass at the Mount Isa Mine, Australia, and comparable tests on a cemented sandfill. The results from these tests are given in Table 14.3. It is observed from these data that the main effect of the rockfill inclusion in the sandfill medium is a significant increase in the cohesion of the mass. Clearly, there could be significant mining advantages if the design of the fill placement system could produce, preferentially, a composite fill of the type tested at locations requiring a high-strength fill mass. As summarised by Landriault (2001), the cement content of cemented rockfills (CRF) typically lies in the range of 4%–8% by weight. Because of the cost of Portland cement, a proportion of the cement in CRF may be replaced by finely ground furnace slag and fly ash, provided extra time is available for curing. In examining the effect of cement addition on rockfill strength, Swan (1985) found that the 28-day uniaxial compressive strength (c) of CRF was related to volumetric cement content (Cv) by the expression c = C 2.36 v (14.4) where is a characteristic of the particular rock type. Some typical strength and deformation properties of cast samples of cemented rockfill, for both small- and large-scale specimens, were c in the range 1–11 MPa, 415
ARTIFICIALLY SUPPORTED MINING METHODS and deformation modulus in the range 300–1000 MPa. In situ strength may be considerably lower than laboratory strength values, due to effects such as segregation, difference in porosity and variable distribution of cement. Barrett and Cowling (1980) proposed that, as a general rule, the in situ strength of CRF was about 50% of the strength measured in the laboratory. 14.2.4 Paste backfill Paste backfill is a relatively recent development. It is frequently composed of the complete solids content of de-watered run-of-mill tailings and cement. It has a high fines content, typically at least 15% by weight passing 20 m, and has a water content sufficient to form a high viscosity paste. The total solids content is typically in the range 78–85%. Control of the water content is critical in ensuring that the fines fraction exists as a colloidal suspension which forms the transport medium for the coarser fraction of the fill. Because of the high fines fraction and the danger of liquefaction, a cementing agent is an absolutely essential component of paste fill in ensuring its safe performance underground. Cement additions are in the range of 1–5%, depending on the functions of the fill. The relatively high viscosity of paste fill compared to sandfill requires higher pressure gradients to induce flow, and results in higher overall pipeline pressures. The rheology of paste is not only a function of the fines content, but also of the chemistry and mineralogy of the component materials. The formation of a colloidal boundary layer of fine material during the plug flow of paste is important in maintaining stable flow. The sensitivity of paste fill to water content means that particular attention must be paid to drainage conditions in mine voids both during and after backfilling. The lower water content of pre-placed paste fill permits the use of lower cement content than in cemented sandfill, and strength is further improved by the lack of segregation during paste fill placement. According to Landriault (2001), cement consumption using paste backfill is generally about 40–70% of what would be used in alternative backfills with comparable mechanical properties. Further, some mines have found that a coarse material can be introduced in paste fill. The resultant blended paste fill has a wider particle size distribution, leading to a lower porosity and therefore lower water content in the fill mix. After placement, blended fill results in a relatively high modulus fill mass, which can be important in rock support in some mining applications where development of support pressures in the fill mass is sought. 14.3 Design of mine backfill Design of backfill for stoping operations must consider two sets of requirements. First, the in situ fill mass must meet various criteria for self-support, such as specified stable free-standing, vertical or horizontal (undercut) spans, to permit excavation of adjacent rock. Second, its role as a functional structural element in the mine must be considered. It is possible to design backfill to perform particular functions, such as provision of support for stope boundaries or lateral confinement of pillars to improve their post-peak deformation characteristics. Design of backfill to assure stable performance under the operating conditions imposed by extraction of adjacent rock involves an analysis of stress and displacement 416
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Rock Mechanics
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Rock Mechanics for underground mini
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Contents Preface to the third editi
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CONTENTS 9 Excavation design in blo
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CONTENTS ix Appendix A Basic constr
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PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION Mining
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PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION In th
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PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION design
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Safety in Mines Re
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Figure 1.1 (a) Pre-mining condition
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ROCK MECHANICS AND MINING ENGINEERI
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Figure 1.4 Principal features of a
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10 Figure 1.5 Definition of activit
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Figure 1.7 Components and logic of
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Figure 2.1 (a) A finite body subjec
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Figure 2.2 Free-body diagram for es
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STRESS AND INFINITESIMAL STRAIN As
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STRESS AND INFINITESIMAL STRAIN In
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Figure 2.3 Free-body diagram for de
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Figure 2.5 Problem geometry for det
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Figure 2.7 Rigid-body rotation of a
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STRESS AND INFINITESIMAL STRAIN the
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STRESS AND INFINITESIMAL STRAIN str
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⎡ ⎢ ⎣ xx yy zz xy yz zx STRES
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Figure 2.11 Cylindrical polar coord
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STRESS AND INFINITESIMAL STRAIN fre
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Figure 2.13 Construction of a Mohr
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STRESS AND INFINITESIMAL STRAIN fun
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3 Rock Figure 3.1 Sidewall failure
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Figure 3.2 Jointing in a folded str
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Figure 3.5 Diagrammatic longitudina
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Figure 3.7 Discontinuity spacing hi
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Figure 3.9 Illustration of persiste
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Figure 3.11 Typical roughness profi
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ROCK MASS STRUCTURE AND CHARACTERIS
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Figure 3.17 Sample number vs. preci
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Figure 3.19 Diagrammatic illustrati
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Figure 3.20 Computerised depiction
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Figure 3.23 Stereographic projectio
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Figure 3.26 Polar stereographic net
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Figure 3.28 Contours of pole concen
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Figure 3.30 Geological Strength Ind
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Figure 4.1 Idealised illustration o
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ROCK STRENGTH AND DEFORMABILITY wit
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Figure 4.4 Influence of end restrai
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ROCK STRENGTH AND DEFORMABILITY whe
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Figure 4.8 Principle of closed-loop
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Figure 4.12 Two classes of stress-
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Figure 4.14 Point load test apparat
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Figure 4.15 Biaxial compression tes
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Figure 4.18 Results of triaxial com
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ROCK STRENGTH AND DEFORMABILITY was
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Figure 4.23 Coulomb strength envelo
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Figure 4.25 Extension of a preexist
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Figure 4.29 The three basic modes o
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Figure 4.30 Normalised peak strengt
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ROCK STRENGTH AND DEFORMABILITY Tab
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Figure 4.32 The normality condition
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Figure 4.33 Variation of peak princ
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Figure 4.35 Direct shear test confi
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Figure 4.37 Shear stress-shear disp
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Figure 4.40 Peak and residual effec
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Figure 4.43 Effect of shearing dire
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Figure 4.45 Relations between norma
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Figure 4.47 Coulomb friction, linea
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ROCK STRENGTH AND DEFORMABILITY whe
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Figure 4.49 Composite peak strength
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Figure 4.50 Hoek-Brown peak strengt
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Figure 4.52 Determination of the Yo
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ROCK STRENGTH AND DEFORMABILITY 4 A
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5 Pre-mining Figure 5.1 Method of s
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Figure 5.2 The effect of irregular
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PRE-MINING STATE OF STRESS surround
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PRE-MINING STATE OF STRESS induced
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Figure 5.5 (a) Definition of hole l
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Figure 5.6 (a) Core drilling a slot
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Figure 5.7 Principles of stress mea
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PRE-MINING STATE OF STRESS strength
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PRE-MINING STATE OF STRESS A second
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PRE-MINING STATE OF STRESS by the e
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PRE-MINING STATE OF STRESS extend i
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PRE-MINING STATE OF STRESS (d) Dete
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METHODS OF STRESS ANALYSIS quantita
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METHODS OF STRESS ANALYSIS It is in
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Figure 6.2 A thick-walled cylinder
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METHODS OF STRESS ANALYSIS For the
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Figure 6.3 Problem geometry, coordi
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Figure 6.4 Problem geometry, coordi
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METHODS OF STRESS ANALYSIS When the
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Figure 6.5 Superposition scheme dem
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METHODS OF STRESS ANALYSIS The disc
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Figure 6.7 Development of a finite
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METHODS OF STRESS ANALYSIS Solution
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Figure 6.8 A simple finite element
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Figure 6.9 A schematic representati
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METHODS OF STRESS ANALYSIS block ce
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METHODS OF STRESS ANALYSIS where ˚
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METHODS OF STRESS ANALYSIS The prin
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EXCAVATION DESIGN IN MASSIVE ELASTI
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Figure 7.2 A logical framework for
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Figure 7.3 (a) Axisymmetric stress
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Figure 7.6 A plane of weakness, ori
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Figure 7.8 A flat-lying plane of we
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Figure 7.10 Shear stress/normal str
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Figure 7.12 Ovaloidal opening in a
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Figure 7.15 States of stress at sel
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Figure 7.16 Prediction of the exten
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Figure 7.18 Contour plots of princi
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Figure 7.19 Problem geometry for de
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8 Excavation Figure 8.1 An excavati
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EXCAVATION DESIGN IN STRATIFIED ROC
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Figure 8.4 Experimental apparatus f
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Figure 8.7 Free body diagrams and n
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Figure 8.8 Assumed distributions of
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Figure 8.9 Flow chart for the deter
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Figure 8.10 Normalised arch thickne
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EXCAVATION DESIGN IN STRATIFIED ROC
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Figure 8.11 Normalised deflection a
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9 Excavation Figure 9.1 Generation
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Figure 9.3 (a) A finite, non-tapere
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(a) (b) Figure 9.4 (a) Vertical cro
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(a) (b) (c) EP EP Reference circle
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Figure 9.10 JP 100 is the only JP w
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Figure 9.12 Traces of the views of
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EXCAVATION DESIGN IN BLOCKY ROCK In
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Figure 9.14 Free-body diagrams of a
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EXCAVATION DESIGN IN BLOCKY ROCK di
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Figure 9.16 Symmetrical wedge in th
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Figure 9.17 (a) Geometry for determ
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Figure 9.18 Problem geometry demons
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Figure 9.20 Cut-and-fill stope mine
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Figure 9.22 Chart to determine fact
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EXCAVATION DESIGN IN BLOCKY ROCK Th
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Figure 10.1 (a) Pre-mining state of
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Figure 10.3 (a) Dynamic loading of
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Figure 10.5 (a) Pre-mining and (b)
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Figure 10.6 Problem definition and
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ENERGY, MINE STABILITY, MINE SEISMI
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Figure 10.9 Force and stress compon
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Figure 10.12 Distribution of radial
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Figure 10.15 Problem geometry for d
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Figure 10.17 (a) Schematic represen
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Figure 10.20 Elastic/post-peak stif
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Figure 10.24 Relation between frequ
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Figure 10.28 Six possible ways that
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Figure 10.29 First motions for P an
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11Rock support and reinforcement 11
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Figure 11.1 (a) Hypothetical exampl
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Figure 11.4 Non-linear support reac
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Figure 11.5 Idealised elastic-britt
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Figure 11.6 Calculated required sup
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ROCK SUPPORT AND REINFORCEMENT The
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Figure 11.9 Ground reaction curves
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Figure 11.12 Use of grouted reinfor
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ROCK SUPPORT AND REINFORCEMENT If,
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Figure 11.16 Local reinforcement ac
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Figure 11.18 Typical working sketch
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Figure 11.19 Permanent support and
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Figure 11.22 Basis of natural coord
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Figure 11.24 Distributions of (a) s
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Figure 11.26 Resin grouted rockbolt
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Figure 11.28 Alternative methods of
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ROCK SUPPORT AND REINFORCEMENT Tabl
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Figure 11.31 Toussaint-Heintzmann y
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MINING METHODS AND METHOD SELECTION
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Figure 12.2 Elements of a supported
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Figure 12.6 Schematic layout for bi
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Figure 12.8 Layout for shrink stopi
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Figure 12.9 Schematic layout for VC
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Page 383 and 384: Figure 12.13 Mining layout for tran
Page 385 and 386: MINING METHODS AND METHOD SELECTION
Page 387 and 388: 13 Figure 13.1 Schematic illustrati
Page 389 and 390: Figure 13.3 Layout of barrier pilla
Page 391 and 392: Figure 13.5 Principal modes of defo
Page 393 and 394: Figure 13.8 Geometry for tributary
Page 395 and 396: PILLAR SUPPORTED MINING METHODS str
Page 397 and 398: Figure 13.10 Distribution of vertic
Page 399 and 400: Figure 13.12 Pillar behaviour domai
Page 401 and 402: PILLAR SUPPORTED MINING METHODS Lun
Page 403 and 404: Figure 13.15 Options in the design
Page 405 and 406: Figure 13.17 Relation between yield
Page 407 and 408: Figure 13.19 Model of yield of coun
Page 409 and 410: Figure 13.20 North-south vertical c
Page 411 and 412: Figure 13.23 Stope-and-pillar layou
Page 413 and 414: Figure 13.25 Calibrated stability c
Page 415 and 416: PILLAR SUPPORTED MINING METHODS wor
Page 417 and 418: Figure 13.28 Pillar performance, de
Page 419 and 420: Figure 13.29 (a) Stope and pillar l
Page 421 and 422: Figure 13.31 (a) Plane strain analy
Page 423 and 424: PILLAR SUPPORTED MINING METHODS Pan
Page 425 and 426: 14 Artificially supported mining me
Page 427 and 428: ARTIFICIALLY SUPPORTED MINING METHO
Page 431: Figure 14.2 Simplified view of stru
Page 435 and 436: Figure 14.5 Confined block model fo
Page 437 and 438: Figure 14.7 Crown and sidewall stre
Page 443 and 444: Figure 14.10 Sublevel open stoping
Page 445 and 446: Figure 14.12 Some applications of c
Page 447 and 448: 15 Longwall and caving mining metho
Page 449 and 450: Figure 15.2 Shear stress drop in th
Page 451 and 452: LONGWALL AND CAVING MINING METHODS
Page 455 and 456: Figure 15.6 Hydraulic prop reaction
Page 457 and 458: Figure 15.7 Development and extract
Page 459 and 460: Figure 15.8 Vertical stress redistr
Page 461 and 462: Figure 15.11 Distribution of observ
Page 463 and 464: Figure 15.13 Plan view of microseis
Page 465 and 466: Figure 15.16 Ground-support interac
Page 467 and 468: Figure 15.18 Roadway support and re
Page 475 and 476: Figure 15.25 Comparison of isolated
Page 477 and 478: Figure 15.26 Geometry of a sublevel
Page 479 and 480: Figure 15.28 Theoretical determinat
Page 481 and 482: Figure 15.31 Deterioration of a cro
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Figure 15.32 Distinct element simul
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LONGWALL AND CAVING MINING METHODS
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Figure 15.34 Extended Mathews stabi
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Figure 15.36 Comparison of postand
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Figure 15.39 Idealised plan illustr
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Figure 15.41 Idealised vertical sec
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Figure 15.42 Vertical slice through
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16 Figure 16.1 Trough subsidence ov
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MINING-INDUCED SURFACE SUBSIDENCE c
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Figure 16.4 North-south section, At
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Figure 16.6 (a) Rectangular block g
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MINING-INDUCED SURFACE SUBSIDENCE f
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Figure 16.8 Relation between stope
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MINING-INDUCED SURFACE SUBSIDENCE M
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MINING-INDUCED SURFACE SUBSIDENCE
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Figure 16.14 Chart developed to est
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Figure 16.16 Progressive hangingwal
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Figure 16.19 Idealised model used i
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Figure 16.21 Longitudinal section,
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MINING-INDUCED SURFACE SUBSIDENCE t
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MINING-INDUCED SURFACE SUBSIDENCE w
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MINING-INDUCED SURFACE SUBSIDENCE F
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Figure 16.25 Subsidence troughs pre
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Figure 16.28 Predicted and measured
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17 Blasting mechanics 17.1 Blasting
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Figure 17.1 An empirical matching o
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Figure 17.2 A finite difference mod
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Figure 17.4 Reflection of a cylindr
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BLASTING MECHANICS means that no ci
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Figure 17.8 Layout of blast holes i
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Figure 17.9 Influence of field stat
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Figure 17.11 Generation of surface
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BLASTING MECHANICS The components o
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BLASTING MECHANICS amplitudes of th
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BLASTING MECHANICS 17.9 Evaluation
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Figure 17.15 (a) Schematic cross se
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BLASTING MECHANICS in Figure 17.17,
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MONITORING ROCK MASS PERFORMANCE (a
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MONITORING ROCK MASS PERFORMANCE su
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MONITORING ROCK MASS PERFORMANCE Ta
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Figure 18.2 The Distometer ISETH, a
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Figure 18.5 Self-inductance multipl
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MONITORING ROCK MASS PERFORMANCE is
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Figure 18.9 Biaxial vibrating wire
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MONITORING ROCK MASS PERFORMANCE me
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Figure 18.12 Cross section at 6650N
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Figure 18.13 Examples of convergenc
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Figure 18.15 Longitudinal section l
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Figure 18.16 (Cont.) MONITORING ROC
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Appendix A Basic constructions usin
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Figure A.3 Determining the angle be
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APPENDIX A USE OF HEMISPHERICAL PRO
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APPENDIX B STRESSES AND DISPLACEMEN
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Figure A.6 Axisymmetric tunnel prob
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Figure A.9 Bolt load-extension curv
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APPENDIX D LIMITING EQUILIBRIUM ANA
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ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS 2 (a) 0.087 - 0
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ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS 3 wp = 38.6 m,
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REFERENCES Symp. & 17th Tunn. Assn
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REFERENCES Brady, B. H. G. and Bray
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REFERENCES Collier, P. A. (1993) De
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REFERENCES Drescher, A. and Vardoul
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REFERENCES Gustafsson, P. (1998) Wa
Page 617 and 618:
REFERENCES Hood, M. and Brown, E. T
Page 619 and 620:
REFERENCES Kaiser, P. K. and Tannan
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REFERENCES Lorig, L. J. and Brady,
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REFERENCES Ortlepp, W. D. (1994) Gr
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REFERENCES Rojas, E., Molina, R. an
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REFERENCES Spottiswoode, S. M. and
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REFERENCES Villaescusa, E., Windsor
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Index Page numbers appearing in bol
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INDEX Coulomb (cont.) parameters 96
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INDEX Excavation (cont.) support ra
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INDEX Jaeger’s plane of weakness
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INDEX Panel caving 470-2, 473, 474,
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INDEX Seismic (cont.) moment 306, 3
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INDEX Strength (cont.) residual 86,
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INDEX United States (USA) 395, 396,
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