STATE OF THE CLIMATE IN 2009

More documents

Recommendations

Info

lived halocarbons. In the midlatitudes, this influenceis expressed as effective equivalent chlorine(EECl; Fig. 2.36) and is derived from surface-basedmeasurements. It provides an estimate of the nearfutureozone-depleting power of trace gases (EESC,Fig. 2.36), when air at the Earth’s surface will havebecome mixed into the midlatitude stratosphere. Asecond metric, equivalent chlorine (ECl, not shown),provides an estimate of the ozone-depleting power oftrace gases in the near future for the stratosphere overthe Polar Regions.The EECl content of the lower atmosphere hasdeclined fairly steadily since the peak in 1994 through2009 at a mean rate of 28 ppt yr -1 . Despite these substantialchanges, full recovery of stratospheric ozoneis not expected until the middle to latter part of the21st century owing to the long lifetime of many ofthese chemicals (lower panel of Fig. 2.36; Table 2.5).Progress towards EECl reductions can now be readilyassessed with the NOAA Ozone-Depleting Gas Index(ODGI) (Hofmann and Montzka 2009). In 2009 theODGI for the midlatitudes was 68.7 and the ODGIfor Antarctica derived from ECl estimates was 83.5(not shown).(iii) The combined influence of long-lived trace gaseson the radiative balance of the atmosphere.—S.A. MontzkaLong-lived trace gases have a direct and indirectinfluence on the energy balance of the atmosphere.The direct radiative influence of a trace gas is proportionalto its atmospheric abundance and its radiativeefficiency (Table 2.5). High precision measurementsof the major long-lived greenhouse gases and 15minor greenhouse gases (Table 2.5) have been usedto calculate the overall change in the direct radiativeclimate forcing (Hofmann et al. 2006) (Fig. 2.37). Bymid-2008, the increases in the abundances of all thesegases amounted to an additional direct radiative forcingto the atmosphere totaling approximately 2.74 Wm -2 , changes in the abundance of CO 2accounting for63% of this enhanced radiative forcing.The NOAA Annual Greenhouse Gas Index(AGGI)(Hofmann et al. 2006) is calculated as a ratiorelative to the direct radiative forcing calculated fromthese gases for 1990; indirect effects (e.g., arising fromozone depletion or water-vapor feedbacks) are notconsidered. Preliminary data indicated that the 2009AGGI was 1.275 (Fig. 2.37) and CO 2had accountedfor about 80% of the observed increase since 1990.Fig. 2.37. The NOAA Annual Greenhouse Gas Index(AGGI) shows radiative forcing relative to 1750, of allthe long-lived greenhouse gases indexed to 1 for theyear 1990. Since 1990, radiative forcing from greenhousegases has increased 27.5%.(iv) Nitrous oxide (N 2O) and sulfur hexafluoride(SF 6)—J. W. Elkins and G. S. DuttonNitrous oxide (N 2O) and sulfur hexafluoride (SF 6)are important atmospheric trace gases with significantman-made sources. Nitrous oxide has the thirdstrongest anthropogenic climate forcing after CO 2and CH 4and is considered a major greenhouse gas(Butler 2009). Atmospheric N 2O is also responsiblefor stratospheric ozone depletion by providing asource of stratospheric nitric oxide (Ravishankaraet al. 2009). The 2009 mean global concentration ofN 2O was 322.5 ± 0.1 ppb yr -1 (Fig. 2.38 top panel). Itsmean global growth rate since 1977 is 0.733 ± 0.002ppb but with substantial interannual variation (Fig.2.38 bottom panel). The atmospheric N 2O budget isout of balance by one-third as a result of man-madeemissions, primarily through emissions from nitrogenfertilizers (Crutzen et al. 2007).Sulfur hexafluoride has one of the strongest GlobalWarming Potentials (GWP) of all trace gases at 23 900times CO 2with a 100-yr time horizon (Solomon et al.2007) with the fifth strongest climate forcing of the10 minor greenhouse gases (Hofmann et al. 2006). Itsglobal average concentration for 2009 was 6.76 ± 0.07parts-per-trillion dry by mole fraction (ppt) (Fig. 2.38top panel) and thus its climate forcing contribution issmall. The atmospheric lifetime of SF 6is long (3200yr); so, many developed countries have instituted voluntaryprograms with suppliers and utilities to reducetheir emissions. The global atmospheric growth ratepeaked at 0.32 ppt yr -1 in 2008 but in 2009 decreased,perhaps as a result of the recent global economic recessionand voluntary efforts by countries to reduceemissions (Fig. 2.38 bottom panel).S44 | juNE 2010
Table 2.5. Mixing ratios, radiative efficiencies and lifetimes of chemicals considered in the AGGI.Industrial Designationor Common NameChemicalFormula AGGI ODGIRadiative Efficiency(Wm -2 ppb -1 ) *Mean sufacemixing ratiomid-2009[changefrom 2008 to2009] a LifetimeCarbon Dioxide CO 2Y N 1.41x10 -5 386.3[1.5] NAMethane CH 4Y N 3.7x10 -4 1.79 [6.5x10 -3 ] 9.0Nitrous oxide N 2O Y N 3.03x10 -3 322.5[0.6] 114ChlorofluorocarbonsCFC-11 CCl 3F Y Y 0.25 243.3[-1.8] 45CFC-12 CCl 2F 2Y Y 0.32 532.6[-3.0] 100CFC-113 CCl 2FCClF 2Y Y 0.30 75.9[-0.5] 85HydrochlorofluorocarbonsHCFC-22 CHClF 2Y Y 0.20 198.4[8.7] 12.0HCFC-141b CH 3CCl 2F Y Y 0.14 19.8[0.6] 9.3HCFC-142b CH 3CClF 2Y Y 0.20 19.4[1.1] 17.9HydrofluorocarbonsHFC-134a CH 2FCF 3Y N 0.16 52.5[4.8] 14HFC-152a CH 3CHF 2N N 0.09 5.9[0.3] 1.4ChlorocarbonsMethyl Chloroform CH 3CCl 3Y Y 0.06 9.2[-1.6] 5.0Carbon Tetrachloride CCl 4Y Y 0.13 89.4[-1.4] 26Methyl Chloride CH 3Cl N Y 0.01 542[-2] 1.0BromocarbonsMethyl Bromide CH 3Br N Y 0.01 7.3[-0.0-2] 0.7Halon 1211 CBrClF 2Y Y 0.30 4.0[-0.05] 16.0Halon 1301 CBrF 3Y Y 0.32 3.1[0.02] 65Halon 2402 CBrF 2CBrF N Y 0.33 0.45[-0.01] 20Fully fluorinated speciesSulfur Hexafluoride SF 6Y N 0.52 6.76[0.26] 3,200NA = Not applicable; the lifetime of CO 2cannot be expressed as a single number (Archer and Brovkin 2008).* Radiative forcings and lifetimes are taken from Daniel et al. (2007) and Clerbaux and Cunnold et al. (2007).aMixing ratios are measured global surface means determined from NOAA global cooperative sampling network (Hofmann et al.2006). Changes indicated in brackets are simply the difference between the 2009 and 2008 annual global surface mean mixingratios. Units are ppm for CO 2, ppb for CH 4and N 2O, and ppt for all others.2) Global aerosols—J.W. Kaiser, A. Benedetti, and J.-J. MorcretteAtmospheric aerosols influence atmospheric radiationand cloud droplet nucleation. Inadequate understandingof these direct and indirect effects dominates uncertaintyof the radiative forcing in climate projections from climatemodels (Alley et al. 2007). The aerosol sources are influencedby changes in land cover, wind and precipitationpatterns, and human activities. Global monitoring of aerosolsremains a substantial scientific challenge due to theirlarge variability and heterogeneity in chemical compositionand size. Current routine ground- and satellite-basedobservations of aerosols cannot provide high temporalSTATE OF THE CLIMATE IN 2009 juNE 2010 |S45
Page 8 and 9: Luo, Jing-Jia, Research Institute f
Page 10 and 11: Tedesco, Marco, Department Earth an
Page 12 and 13: 4. THE TROPICS.....................
Page 14 and 15: ABSTRACT—M. O. Baringer, D. S. Ar
Page 16 and 17: I. INTRODUCTION—M. O. Baringer an
Page 18 and 19: Table 1.1 The GCOS Essential Climat
Page 20 and 21: S18 | juNE 2010
Page 22 and 23: Stratospheric TemperatureCloudiness
Page 25: Source Datasets Sectionhttp://www.p
Page 28 and 29: HOW do WE KNOW THE WORLD HAS WARMED
Page 30 and 31: Fig. 2.6. As for Fig. 2.1 but for l
Page 32 and 33: Fig. 2.10. Change in TCWV from 2008
Page 34 and 35: Precipitation anomalies in 2009, ov
Page 36 and 37: Fig. 2.18. Seasonal SCE anomalies (
Page 38 and 39: USING SI-TRACABLE GLOBAL POSITIONIN
Page 40 and 41: 6) Lake levels—C. BirkettLake vol
Page 42 and 43: Fig. 2.30. (a) The daily AO index f
Page 45: (C) Carbon monoxide (CO)There has b
Page 50 and 51: the mid-1990s but has since levelle
Page 52 and 53: with all 42 glaciers observed retre
Page 54 and 55: of 0.1° and 5 days (Kaiser et al.
Page 56 and 57: Fig. 3.1. (a) Yearly mean SSTAs in
Page 58 and 59: (Fig. 3.3c). It is interesting that
Page 60 and 61: strong there, consistent with anoma
Page 62 and 63: cont'RECENT ADVANCES IN OUR UNDERST
Page 64 and 65: is to cause SST to rise if oceanic
Page 66 and 67: egions around the subtropical salin
Page 68 and 69: Fig 3.17. Principal empirical ortho
Page 70 and 71: Fig. 3.19. Daily estimates of the s
Page 72 and 73: Fig. 3.22. (top) The 2009 SSH anoma
Page 74 and 75: to update the CO 2climatology, ther
Page 76 and 77: µmol kg -1 or about half of the ac
Page 78 and 79: Fig. 3.31. (a) Average MODIS-Aqua C
Page 80 and 81: latitudes, chlorophyll and thermal
Page 83 and 84: Fig. 4.4. (a) Anomalous 850-hPa win
Page 85 and 86: (Fig. 4.6). These include four MJO
Page 87 and 88: Fig. 4.8. NOAA’s ACE index expres
Page 89 and 90: Fig. 4.14. ASO 2009: Anomalous 200-
Page 91 and 92: Fig. 4.17. The tracks of all TCs th
Page 93 and 94: Several previous studies have shown
Page 95 and 96: followed by TY Linfa and TS Nangka
Page 97 and 98:
The Philippines were severely affec
Page 99 and 100:
The historical SIO TC data is proba
Page 101 and 102:
Fig. 4.26. Global anomalies of TCHP
Page 103 and 104:
degree resolution NASA TRMM rainfal
Page 105 and 106:
F i g. 4.32 . TRMM (a) mean and (b)
Page 107 and 108:
THE forgotten sub-BASIN—THE centr
Page 109 and 110:
5. THE ARCTIC—J. Richter-Menge, E
Page 111 and 112:
and North America (south of 55° la
Page 113 and 114:
Fig. 5.8. 2007-09 Atlantic water la
Page 115 and 116:
d. Sea ice cover—D. Perovich, R.
Page 117 and 118:
e. Land1) Vegetation—D. A. Walker
Page 119 and 120:
Fig. 5.18. Total annual river disch
Page 121 and 122:
negative SCD anomalies were evident
Page 123 and 124:
with records beginning in 1873, the
Page 125 and 126:
(QuikSCAT, 2000-09) microwave remot
Page 127 and 128:
6. ANTARCTICAa. Overview—R. L. Fo
Page 129 and 130:
(SCAR) report ‘Antarctic Climate
Page 131 and 132:
these stations in April, August, an
Page 133 and 134:
e. 2008-2009 Seasonal melt extent a
Page 135 and 136:
positive ice-season duration anomal
Page 137 and 138:
7. REGIONAL CLIMATESa. Introduction
Page 139 and 140:
first half of the year (January-Jun
Page 141 and 142:
its second wettest such period. Sev
Page 143 and 144:
California began the year with mode
Page 145 and 146:
The first drought occurred in March
Page 147 and 148:
Fig. 7.8. (a) Annual mean temperatu
Page 149 and 150:
Fig. 7.11. (a) Annual mean temperat
Page 151 and 152:
EXTREME rainfall and the flood of t
Page 153 and 154:
Fig. 7.14. Composite for standardiz
Page 155 and 156:
Fig. 7.17. Daily maximum temperatur
Page 157 and 158:
(ii) PrecipitationDecember to Febru
Page 159 and 160:
For Zimbabwe, the rainfall season,
Page 161 and 162:
Fig. 7.28. Annual mean temperature
Page 163 and 164:
Fig. 7.31. Seasonal anomalies (1961
Page 165 and 166:
(1706-2009), and new national recor
Page 167 and 168:
cold in southern and central Finlan
Page 169 and 170:
EXCEPTIONAL storm strikes northern
Page 171 and 172:
7.32b). April was particularly mild
Page 173 and 174:
to -44 о С) persisted in southern
Page 175 and 176:
Fig. 7.39. Weather conditions in De
Page 177 and 178:
on the 1971-2000 climatology) for a
Page 179 and 180:
excess rainfall, while 11 subdivisi
Page 181 and 182:
4) Southwest Asia(i) Iraq—M. Roge
Page 183 and 184:
Wales. The warmth was particularly
Page 185 and 186:
The most significant severe thunder
Page 187 and 188:
mm thick, which fell on parts of No
Page 189 and 190:
and Vanua Levu islands (Fiji) as a
Page 191 and 192:
Table 7.5. Maximum temperature anom
Page 193 and 194:
8. SEASONAL SUMMARIES—Mike Halper
Page 195 and 196:
Fig. 8.5. Jun-Aug 2009 (top) surfac
Page 197 and 198:
ACKNOWLEDGMENTSIn addition to the m
Page 199 and 200:
CFCCFC-11CFC-12CH 4Chl satCIIFENClC
Page 201 and 202:
OAFlux Objectively Analyzed Air-Sea
Page 203 and 204:
Ashok, K., S. K. Behera, S. A. Rao,
Page 205 and 206:
Cangialosi, J. P., and L. A. Avila,
Page 207 and 208:
Francis, J. A., W. Chan, D. J. Leat
Page 209 and 210:
Hudson, J. M. G., and G. H. R. Henr
Page 211 and 212:
Landsea, C. W., and W. M. Gray, 199
Page 213 and 214:
Meinen, C. S., M. O. Baringer, and
Page 215 and 216:
Ramaswamy, V., M. D. Schwarzkopf, W
Page 217 and 218:
——, ——, T. C. Peterson, and
Page 219 and 220:
Wang, L., C. Derksen, and R. Brown,
Page 224:
Monthly average temperature anomali
show all

STATE OF THE CLIMATE IN 2009

You also want an ePaper? Increase the reach of your titles

Delete template?

Save as template?