Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerabilities - Climate ...

74 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerabilitieswere delivered to the Gulf Coast, in some cases more rapidly than normal as the US-ACE operated emergency spillways at Morganza and Bonnet Carre in coastal Louisiana(NOAA, 2011a). The floodwaters contributed to an increase in the Gulf’s hypoxic zone toan area nearly equal to the land area of the state of New Jersey and threatened the Gulf’svaluable commercial and recreational fisheries (NOAA, 2011b).As noted above, increases in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather are alsoexpected to impact coastal infrastructure, services in coastal regions and particularlyports, and key nodes of international supply chains (Oh & Reuveny, 2010). Heavier rainfall,combined with sea-level rise and storm surge is expected to substantially increasethe frequency of flooding in major metropolitan areas in the northeastern U.S. in the 21stcentury (Kirschen et al., 2008) and in California (Moser & Tribbia, 2006).Although only a single storm, Hurricane Katrina illustrated the vulnerabilities of thenation’s coastal flood-protection infrastructure and the ongoing need to consider nonstationarityand/or previously unobserved environmental conditions including impactsrelated to sea-level rise, coastal subsidence, and changes in storm characteristics. TheUSACE recently updated the sea level-rise curves contained in its primary engineeringguidance for use in its civil works programs (USACE, 2011).Water QUALITY, WASTEWATER, and STORMWATER MANAGEMENT. Climatechange and associated effects on patterns of precipitation may result in deterioration ofwater quality (Delpla et al., 2009; Park et al., 2010; Whitehead et al., 2009). Precipitationincreases on land have increased river runoff and polluted coastal waters with nitrogenand phosphorous as well as sediments and other contaminants (Buonaiuto et al., 2010).Storm-water drainage systems, designed with historical patterns of precipitation inmind, may also prove inadequate to new environmental conditions (Mailhot & Duchesne,2010; Rosenberg et al., 2010). Increased precipitation and especially increases inextreme precipitation events in coastal areas could lead to an increased frequency ofcombined sewer overflows (CSOs) that could result in beach closures and shellfish bedclosures (Bookman et al,. 1999). Mallin and others (2001) conclude that increasing rainfalland runoff on developed lands with higher impervious surfaces or more septic systemsleads to the transport of more fecal coliform contaminant to shellfish beds andsubsequent closures (Line et al., 2008).Increases in heavy precipitation combined with sea-level rise in New York could affectthe heights of tide gates designed to prevent the inflow of seawater and backing upof outfall sewers (NYCDEP, 2008). According to Buonaiuto et al. (2010: pg. 130), “[m]ore tide gates may need to be installed at outflow locations to prevent such inflows,and more frequent repairs of the gates may become necessary. If high tide levels duringstorms cause backup of sewage, more could be forced into wastewater treatment plants,necessitating the throttling of flows to protect the plants from flooding. Coastal floodingcould increase salinity of influent into wastewater pollution control plants (WPCPs) andlead to corrosion of equipment.”Tourism and RecreationClimate change may have a significant impact on the global tourism and recreation industry.In 2010, the tourism and recreation industry constituted an estimated 9.3 percent