References 145North America during the Late Twentieth Century. Journal of <strong>Climate</strong>, 22, pp. 4117-4134.Arroyo,V. & Cruce, T.L. (2012). State <strong>and</strong> Local <strong>Adaptation</strong> to <strong>Climate</strong> Change. In: The Law of<strong>Adaptation</strong> to <strong>Climate</strong> Change, Michael B. Gerrard & Katrina F. Kuh (Eds.).Ashton, A.D., Walkden, M.J.A., Dickson, M.E., (2011). Equilibrium responses of cliffed coasts tochanges in the rate of sea level rise. Marine Geology, 284, pp. 217-229.Atalah, J., Crowe, T.P. (2010). Combined effects of nutrient enrichment, sedimentation <strong>and</strong> grazerloss on rock pool assemblages. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology <strong>and</strong> Ecology, 388(1-2),pp. 51-57Atkinson, D.E. & Hinzman, L. (2008). Impact of the August 2000 storm on the soil thermalregime, Alaska North Slope. Conference Proceedings, Published Collection: Proceedings of the 9thInternational Conference on Permafrost, Fairbanks, Alaska, 29 June -3 July 2008, pp. 65-70.Atkinson, D.E. (2005). Environmental Forcing of the Circum-polar coastal Regime. GeoMarineLetters, 25, pp.98-109.Atkinson, D.E. (2011). The physical environment of Alaska’s coasts. In: Lovecraft, A. L., Eicken,H. (Eds.) North by 2020 – Perspectives on Alaska’s changing social-ecological systems. Universityof Alaska Press, Fairbanks, pp. 229-252. Retrieved from http://www.sfrpc.com/climatechange.htm.Atkinson, D.E., Schweitzer, P., Smith, O. & Norris, L. (2011). The Arctic <strong>Coastal</strong> System: An Interplayof Components Human, Industrial, <strong>and</strong> Natural. In: Lovecraft, A. L., Eicken, H. (Eds.)North by 2020 – Perspectives on Alaska’s changing social-ecological systems. University of AlaskaPress, Fairbanks, pp. 277-298.Bacon, S. & Carter, D.J.T. (1991). Wave climate changes in the North Atlantic <strong>and</strong> North Sea. InternationalJournal of Climatology, 11, pp. 545-558.Bamber, J.L., Riva, R.E.M., Vermeersen, B.L.A., & LeBrocq, A.M. (2009). Reassessment of thePotential Sea-Level Rise from a Collapse of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet. Science, 324, pp.901-903.Bates, B.C., Kundzewicz, Wu, S., & Palutikof, J.P. (Eds.). (2008). <strong>Climate</strong> Change <strong>and</strong> Water. TechnicalPaper of the Intergovernmental Panel on <strong>Climate</strong> Change, IPCC Secretariat, Geneva,210 pp.Bauer. L.J. (2006). Winter mortality of the blue crab (Callinectes sapidus) in the Chesapeake Bay.Master’s thesis, University of Maryl<strong>and</strong>.Beach, D. (2002). <strong>Coastal</strong> Sprawl: The effects of urban design on aquatic ecosystems in the United States.Pew Oceans Commission. Retrieved from http://www.pewtrusts.org.Becker, A., et al. (2011). <strong>Climate</strong> change impacts on international seaports: Knowledge, perceptions,<strong>and</strong> planning efforts among port adminstrators. Journal of Climatic Change, DOI:10.1007/s10584-011-0043-7Beever, J., Gray, W., Trescott, D., Cobb, D., Utley, J., Hutchinson, D., Gibbons, J., Walker, T.,Abimbola, M., Beever, L., <strong>and</strong> Ott, J. (2009, November 18). City of Punta Gorda <strong>Adaptation</strong>Plan, Southwest Florida Regional Planning Council <strong>and</strong> Charlotte Harbor National EstuaryProgram, Fort Meyers, FL. Technical Report 09-4.Bender, M. A., Knutson, T.R., Tuleya, R.E., Sirutis, J.J., Vecchi, G.A., Garner, S.T., & Held, I.M.(2010). Modeled impact of anthropogenic warming on the frequency of intense Atlantichurricanes. Science, 327(5964), doi:10.1126/science.1180568.Benedict, M.A. & McMahon, E.T. (2006). Green Infrastructure: Linking L<strong>and</strong>scapes <strong>and</strong> Communities.Washington, D.C., Isl<strong>and</strong> Press, 320 pp.Berke, P., Smith, G., & Lyles, W. (In press). Planning for Resiliency: An Evaluation of <strong>Coastal</strong>State Hazard Mitigation Plans. Natural Hazards Review.
146 <strong>Coastal</strong> <strong>Impacts</strong>, <strong>Adaptation</strong>, <strong>and</strong> <strong>Vulnerabilities</strong>Berkowitz, B. (2011, August 31). Special Report: Irene Wallops Flood InsuranceProgram, Reuters. Retrieved from http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/08/31/us-storm-irene-flood-idUSTRE77T5M620110831.Berkowitz, B. (2011, September 4). Scenarios - Katia <strong>and</strong> Lee Threaten Insurance Companies,Reuters. Retrieved from http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/09/04/us-storm-insurance-idUSTRE7832IJ20110904.Berrang-Ford, L., Ford, J.D., & Paterson, J. (2011). Are we adapting to climate change? GlobalEnvironmental Change, 21, pp. 25-33.Berry, H.L., Bowen, K., Kjellstrom, T. (2010). <strong>Climate</strong> change <strong>and</strong> mental health: a causal pathwaysframework. International Journal of Public Health, Volume 55, Number 2, 123-132, DOI:10.1007/s00038-009-0112-0.Bertness, M.D. & Ewanchuk, P.J. (2002). Latitudinal <strong>and</strong> climate-driven variation in the strength<strong>and</strong> nature of biological interactions in New Engl<strong>and</strong> salt marshes. Oecologia, 132, pp.392-401.Bin, O., Dumas, C., & Poulter, B. (2007). Measuring the <strong>Impacts</strong> of <strong>Climate</strong> Change on NorthCarolina <strong>Coastal</strong> Resources. National Commission on Energy Policy. Washington, DC.Bindoff, N.L. <strong>and</strong> coauthors. (2007). Observations: Oceanic climate change <strong>and</strong> sea level, <strong>Climate</strong>Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis, S. Solomon et al., (Eds.), Cambridge UniversityPress, pp. 385-432.Bird, E. (2011). <strong>Coastal</strong> Geomorphology: An Introduction. 2 nd Edition. John Wiley <strong>and</strong> Sons, Inc.,West Sussex, Engl<strong>and</strong>.Birkmann, J., Garschagen, M., Kraas, F., & Quang, N. (2010). Adaptive urban governance: newchallenges for the second generation of urban adaptation strategies to climate change.Sustainability Science, 5(2) pp. 185-206.Bjarnadottir, S., Li, Y., & Stewart, M.G. (2011). Social vulnerability index for coastal communitiesat risk to hurricane hazard <strong>and</strong> a changing climate. Natural Hazards, 59, pp. 1055-1075.Blackwell, K.D. & Oliver, J.D. (2008). The ecology of Vibrio vulnificus, Vibrio cholerae, <strong>and</strong> Vibrioparahaemolyticus in North Carolina estuaries. Journal of Microbiology. 46, pp.146-153.Bloom, A.A., Palmer, P.I., Fraser, A., Reay, D.S., & Frankenberg, C. (2010). Large-Scale Controlsof Methanogenesis Inferred from Methane <strong>and</strong> Gravity Spaceborne Data. Science, 327(5963),pp. 322–325.Blum, M.D., Roberts, H.H. (2009). Drowning of the Mississippi delta due to insufficient sedimentsupply <strong>and</strong> global sea-level rise. Nature Geoscience, 2, pp. 488-491.Blunden, J., Arndt, D.S., & Baringer, M.O. (Eds.). (2011). State of the <strong>Climate</strong> in 2010. Bulletin ofthe American Meteorological Society, 92(6), pp. S1–S266.Boesch, D.F., Coles, V.J., Kimmel, D.G., & Miller, W.D. (2007). <strong>Coastal</strong> dead zones <strong>and</strong> globalclimate change: Ramifications of climate change for Chesapeake Bay hypoxia. Excerptedfrom Regional <strong>Impacts</strong> of <strong>Climate</strong> Change: Four Case Studies in the United States, PewCenter on Global <strong>Climate</strong> Change, Arlington, Virginia, 20 pp.Bookman, C.A., Culliton, T.J., & Warren, M.A. (1999). Trends in U.S. <strong>Coastal</strong> Regions, 1970-1998.Addendum to the Proceedings, Trends <strong>and</strong> Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean <strong>and</strong> <strong>Coastal</strong>Policy. National Oceanic <strong>and</strong> Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).Borja, Á., Dauer, D., Elliott, M., et al. (2010). Medium- <strong>and</strong> Long-term Recovery of Estuarine <strong>and</strong><strong>Coastal</strong> Ecosystems: Patterns, Rates <strong>and</strong> Restoration Effectiveness. Estuaries <strong>and</strong> Coasts, 33(6),pp. 1249-1260.Boruff, B.J., Emrich, C., & Cutter, S.L. (2005). Erosion hazard vulnerability of U.S. coastal counties.Journal of <strong>Coastal</strong> Research, 21(5), pp. 932-942.
- Page 1:
National Climate Assessment Regiona
- Page 5 and 6:
© 2012 The National Oceanic and At
- Page 8:
Coastal Impacts, Adaptation,and Vul
- Page 11 and 12:
Chapter 3Lead Author: Carlton H. He
- Page 16 and 17:
ContentsKey TermsAcronymsCommunicat
- Page 18 and 19:
4.4 Human Health Impacts and Implic
- Page 20 and 21:
Key TermsxixExposure 3 - The nature
- Page 22 and 23:
AcronymsxxiNAO - North Atlantic Osc
- Page 26 and 27:
Executive Summaryxxvffffffffffffffo
- Page 28 and 29:
Executive Summaryxxviiweakened by v
- Page 30 and 31:
Executive SummaryxxixAdaptation and
- Page 34:
Introduction and Context 3irrigatio
- Page 40 and 41:
Introduction and Context 9coastal w
- Page 42 and 43:
Physical Climate Forces 11fffffffff
- Page 44 and 45:
Physical Climate Forces 13Figure 2-
- Page 46 and 47:
Physical Climate Forces 15Sea-level
- Page 48 and 49:
Physical Climate Forces 17maintain
- Page 50 and 51:
Physical Climate Forces 19These low
- Page 52 and 53:
Physical Climate Forces 21Figure 2-
- Page 54 and 55:
Physical Climate Forces 23that surv
- Page 56 and 57:
Physical Climate Forces 25Table 2-2
- Page 58 and 59:
Physical Climate Forces 27Most of t
- Page 60 and 61:
Physical Climate Forces 29(low to m
- Page 62 and 63:
Physical Climate Forces 31A number
- Page 64 and 65:
Physical Climate Forces 33off the c
- Page 66 and 67:
Physical Climate Forces 35in these
- Page 68 and 69:
Physical Climate Forces 37this diff
- Page 70 and 71:
Physical Climate Forces 39in input
- Page 72 and 73:
Physical Climate Forces 41Intensifi
- Page 74 and 75:
Physical Climate Forces 43depth qua
- Page 76 and 77:
Physical Climate Forces 45precipita
- Page 78 and 79:
Physical Climate Forces 47Sea and w
- Page 80 and 81:
Physical Climate Forces 49by sea ic
- Page 82 and 83:
Physical Climate Forces 51niche ero
- Page 84 and 85:
Vulnerability and Impacts on Natura
- Page 86 and 87:
Vulnerability and Impacts on Natura
- Page 88 and 89:
Vulnerability and Impacts on Natura
- Page 90 and 91:
Vulnerability and Impacts on Natura
- Page 92 and 93:
Vulnerability and Impacts on Natura
- Page 94 and 95:
Vulnerability and Impacts on Natura
- Page 96 and 97:
Vulnerability and Impacts on Natura
- Page 98 and 99:
Vulnerability and Impacts on Human
- Page 100 and 101:
Vulnerability and Impacts on Human
- Page 103 and 104:
72 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, and
- Page 105 and 106:
74 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, and
- Page 107 and 108:
76 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, and
- Page 109 and 110:
78 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, and
- Page 111 and 112:
80 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, and
- Page 113 and 114:
82 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, and
- Page 115 and 116:
84 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, and
- Page 117 and 118:
86 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, and
- Page 119 and 120:
88 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, and
- Page 121 and 122:
90 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, and
- Page 123 and 124:
92 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, and
- Page 125 and 126: 94 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, and
- Page 127 and 128: 96 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, and
- Page 129 and 130: Chapter 5Adaptation and MitigationK
- Page 131 and 132: 100 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 133 and 134: 102 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 135 and 136: 104 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 137 and 138: 106 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 139 and 140: 108 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 141 and 142: 110 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 143 and 144: 112 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 145 and 146: 114 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 147 and 148: 116 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 149 and 150: 118 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 151 and 152: 120 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 153 and 154: 122 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 155 and 156: 124 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 157 and 158: 126 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 159 and 160: 128 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 161 and 162: 130 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 163 and 164: 132 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 165 and 166: 134 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 167 and 168: 136 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 169 and 170: 138 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 171 and 172: 140 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 173 and 174: 142 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 175: ReferencesAbuodha, P. & Woodroffe,
- Page 179 and 180: 148 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 181 and 182: 150 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 183 and 184: 152 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 185 and 186: 154 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 187 and 188: 156 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 189 and 190: 158 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 191 and 192: 160 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 193 and 194: 162 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 195 and 196: 164 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 197 and 198: 166 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 199 and 200: 168 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 201 and 202: 170 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 203 and 204: 172 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 205 and 206: 174 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 207 and 208: 176 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 209 and 210: 178 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 211 and 212: 180 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 213 and 214: 182 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 215 and 216: 184 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, an
- Page 217: Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, and Vu
Change language