Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerabilities - Climate ...

90 Coastal Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerabilitieswaste management (EPA, 2011). In the Great Lakes, extreme precipitation events mayoverwhelm the combined sewer systems and lead to overflow events that can threatenboth human health and recreation in the region. Projected increases in heavy rainfalland lake water temperatures, in addition to decreased lake levels, would all be expectedto contribute to beach contamination in the future (McLellan, 2007; Patz, 2008).Biological Toxins. Certain species of marine algae are considered harmful, eitherthrough direct consumption or inhalation of aerosolized biological toxins like those thatoccur during Red Tide events in Florida. Harmful algal blooms (HABs) are increasingin frequency, intensity, and duration in freshwater and marine environments globally(Gilbert, 2005; van Dolah, 2000). The role of climate change in this expansion is unclearand the physical and biological ocean interactions are extremely complex, but currentresearch indicates that: 1) the range expansion of warm-water species occurs at the expenseof cold-water species that are driven poleward; 2) the seasonal window of growthof some species will increase, leading to earlier and, possibly longer and more intenseblooms; 3) these changes in the timing and location of blooms will have secondary effectsfor marine food webs and the transfer of toxins through marine food webs (Hallegraeff,2010). A growing body of literature suggests that the geographic incidence,frequency, and intensity of harmful algal blooms are likely to increase in the future as aresult of an anthropogenically changing climate (Moore et al., 2008, 2010, 2011). In thePuget Sound, sea-surface temperatures affect the timing and onset of certain harmfulalgae. The window of opportunity for harmful blooms of Alexandrium canenella, whichcauses paralytic shellfish poisoning, is likely to shift by up to two months over the nextten years based on climate-driven changes in the coastal ecosystem (Moore, 2010, 2011).Some effects may be seen within the next 30 years and perhaps as early as the next decade(Moore et al., 2011). Understanding algae and related biotoxin production will leadto better predictions of risks related to climate change (Moore, 2008).Chemical CONTAMINANTS. Alterations in the timing and intensity of storm eventsassociated with climate change are expected to deliver different, and in many cases, increasedloadings of chemical contaminants to surface waters (Kundzewicz et al., 2009).These contaminants will be transported downstream and enter coastal ecosystems wherethey can be taken up by marine fish and shellfish and both directly and indirectly affectson human health and well-being. Dickhoff and others (2007) describe many direct risksto human health posed by chemical contamination of seafood. These risks come primarilyfrom persistent and bioaccumulative substances such as polychlorinated biphenylsand methylmercury. In addition, the presence of contamination can often result in regulatoryand advisory actions aimed at reducing consumption of seafood from affectedcoastal areas. Because consumption of seafood is generally believed to confer substantialhuman-health benefits, reduced human consumption of seafood presumably has anegative, indirect effect on human health (Dickhoff et al., 2007).Vector-Borne and ZOONOTIC DISEASE (VBZD). The incidence of VBZD in theU.S. will likely increase under anticipated climate change scenarios. Efficient vector andreservoir life cycles and transmission dynamics depend on optimal temperatures, humiditylevels, and habitats, including coastal waters and shoreline habitats. Changes in