Stimulating investment in pearl farming in ... - World Fish Center

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Water Temperature and Cyclone Frequency in the Pacific: Implications for Pearl Farming Final, June 2008variation in measurement error from one observation to the next, depending on the methodsemployed (Metoffice UK, undated). Measurements taken from the intake of ships, forexample, are not consistent, because the depth of the water intake and where thetemperature is measured vary from vessel to vessel.An alternative remote method of SST measurement based on data collected by infra-redradiometers on board satellites has been in operation since 1978. One of the principalinstruments used to measure SST from space is the Advanced Very High ResolutionRadiometer (AVHRR) carried on board the polar-orbiting satellites operated by the NationalOceanic and Atmospheric Agency (NOAA) (NASA Oceanography 2005). The AVHRR hasan array of five small sensors that record the amount of visible and infrared radiationreflected and/or emitted from the Earth's surface. This instrument takes thousands ofmeasurements of broad swaths of Earth each day and night, resulting in concurrent data setsof the entire planet (National Atlas of the United States 2007). Two other satellite-bornesensors, the Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) and AdvancedMicrowave Scanning Radiometer for EOS (AMSR-E) are also commonly used to measureSST (NASA Oceanography 2005). MODIS, like AVHRR, uses a radiometer to measure thethermal infrared radiation given off by the surface of the ocean, but is sensitive to fivedifferent wavelengths of radiation and can therefore provide more detailed SSTmeasurements than AVHHR (NASA Oceanography 2005). The MODIS sensor has aviewing swath width of 2,330 km and scans the entire surface of Earth every one to twodays. Its detectors measure 36 spectral bands between 0.405 and 14.385 µm and acquire dataat three spatial resolutions: 250 m, 500 m, and 1,000 m (NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory2007). AMSR-E is a passive microwave radiometer that measures radiation from the oceansurface. The measurements derived from satellite-borne sensors are corrected for the effectsof atmospheric water vapour which reduce the strength of the signal emitted and arecalibrated and quality controlled against SST data collected from ships and drifting buoys,which are co-located in both space and time.Satellite-borne sensors provide SST data over much large spatial scales than traditionalmethodologies, but there are a number of problems associated with their use. First, infra-redsensors take radiation measurements from the top "skin" of the ocean, a layer less than 0.1mm thick, rather than bulk SSTs (Metoffice UK, undated). The temperature of the “skin” isusually lower than the bulk SST, because of the loss of radiant and latent heat throughevaporation and mixing. The “skin” temperature also varies during the day, because ofdiurnal solar heating at the sea surface. This problem can be overcome by restricting data tonight-time measurements. Long-term trends in SST derived from AVHRR and MODISsensors also tend to have a “fair weather” bias, because these instruments cannot seethrough cloud cover (NASA Oceanography 2005). SST data may consequently be sparse insome seasons or in some regions of the world. The AMSR-E sensor, however, is able tomeasure radiation from the ocean surface through most types of cloud cover. Variousalgorithms have been developed to correct for signal attenuation by atmospheric effects.Despite these limitations, a number of SST data products have been derived from satellitebasedsensors, including near real-time images, contour charts, analysed fields, SSTanomalies, maps of coral bleaching hot spots and charts showing degree heating weeks, anindicator of the accumulation of thermal stress that coral reefs have experienced over thepast 12 weeks. The products that are available depend on the type of sensor used and thetype and version of the algorithms used to process the data. They also vary in terms of thetime span covered and their spatial resolution on the ground. SST data derived from theNASA MODIS sensors on board the Terra and Aqua satellites, for example, are availablefrom February 2000 and from July 2002 to present, respectively. The data from bothThe Ecology Lab Pty Ltd – Marine and Freshwater Studies Page 3
Water Temperature and Cyclone Frequency in the Pacific: Implications for Pearl Farming Final, June 2008satellites are available at four temporal scales (daily, 8 - day, monthly and annual) and twospatial scales (4.63 and 9.26 km) (NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2007). SST data derivedfrom AVHRR Pathfinder version 4.0 are available from 1985 to July 2003 at three temporalscales (daily, 8 - day, monthly) and three spatial scales (9 km, 18 km and 54 km), while thatfrom AVHRR pathfinder version 5.0 are available from 1985 to 2006 at six temporal (daily, 5-day, 7–day, 8-day, monthly and annually) and one spatial scale (4 km). The maximumresolution of the SST products derived from AVHRRs , for example, varies from 1.1 km(Composite) to 9 km (Pathfinder) and 18 km (MCSST). AMSR-E has a coarser resolutionthan the thermal infrared sensors. Fine resolution data products are more relevant to pearlfarming ventures, because the SSTs of waters immediately overlying coral reefs are usuallysomewhat higher than the SSTs observed offshore by satellite-borne sensors (Strong et al.1996).2.3 In-Situ SST Measurements from Key Regions of the South Pacific andAustralia2.3.1 Black Pearl Farms2.3.1.1 Cook IslandsIn November 2003, The Ministry of Marine Resources assisted by the South Pacific AppliedGeoscience Commission (SOPAC) installed oceanographic monitoring buoys whichautomatically record a variety of parameters, including SST, at hourly intervals withinManihiki and Penrhyn lagoons. The data recorded were retrieved daily with an uplink viasatellite phone, automatically updated on the SOPAC web page, downloaded from the webpage and disseminated to pearl farmers on a weekly basis through the Ministry of MarineResources (McKenzie 2004). The objective of this monitoring was to provide farmers withan early warning system of environmental conditions that may cause disease outbreaks inpearl oysters, so that they could adjust their farming practices. The mean monthly seatemperature over the period the buoys were deployed (November 2003 to January 2005)varied from 28.3 °C (August 2004) to 30.6 °C (December 2004) at Manihiki and from 28.6 °C(July 2004) to 30.1 °C (December 2004) at Penrhyn (Figure 1).2.3.1.2 French PolynesiaA probe deployed within Takapoto Lagoon (14°63’ S, 145° 21’ W) between July 1990 andSeptember 1991 indicated that the mean water temperature varied from 26.5 - 30.5 °C(Buestel et al. 1995). The annual cycle was divided into four distinct periods: a relativelycold period between July and September characterized by temperatures between 26.5 °C and27.5 °C, a warm period between December and April with temperatures between 29.5 °Cand 30.5 °C and two periods of rapid change in October-November and May to June.Measurements taken on calm days during summer (January to March 1991) indicated thatthere was a 0.7 °C variation in mean water temperature between 06h00 and 14h00. Asubsequent study in Takapoto Lagoon, involving the deployment of a multi-parameterprobe over the period March 1997 to April 1998, indicated that the temperature varied from26 °C (August) to 31 °C (March) (Pouvreau et al. 2000a).Similar temperature ranges have been recorded in Takaroa, Manihi, Rangiroa and Fakarevalagoons, but the temperature of the water around the high islands of Tahiti and Tahaa-Raiatea situated further south is slightly cooler, varying from 25.3 - 29.5 °C and 25.5 - 29.7The Ecology Lab Pty Ltd – Marine and Freshwater Studies Page 4
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Stimulating investment in pearlfarm
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Appendix IAppendix IIAppendix IIIAp
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various project elements to describ
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PNGSolomon IsPNGCook IsVanuatuFijiF
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Figure 2. Typical coastal habitat f
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to work alongside WorldFish science
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least two weeks before the main sur
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duration of the dive, maximum botto
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3.7 Natural disastersEnvironmental
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• Legislative review is underway
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− Manning Strait islands− Suava
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incentive treatment that fits the l
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continuing to enter the market. Thi
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Provisions for further aquaculture
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• licences will relate to a parti
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species in Australia are 5 - 10 tim
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6.3 Investor’s recommendations fo
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Report on an EU project grant to th
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Summary• Historically, the blackl
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1. IntroductionBlacklip pearl oyste
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3. Nationwide surveysIn May-June 20
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10 spat collectors were attached at
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On a local scale, it was found that
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3025Normalised catch201510500 2 4 6
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30Spat collector -125201510a. NoroL
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Figure 10. The number of Cymatium,
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Figure 11. Intermediate culture tra
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% survival10090HatcheryWild80706050
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Thus, under the regime developed in
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7.3 Retention and mortality after s
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7.5 Seeding of hatchery-produced sp
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have used average values of $25, $3
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9. ReferencesBraley, R.D. 1997. Fin
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depend mainly on the quality of the
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Report to:World Fish CenterSuitabil
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Suitability of Habitats for Growth
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Page 79 and 80: Suitability of Habitats for Growth
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Abundance, Size Structure and Quali
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Report on an EU project grant to th
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1. Governance and political stabili
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Despite its present weaknesses, eff
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payments, but the authorities have
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to recede and presumably vanish und
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outcome is far from certain. There
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existing links, at locations within
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6. Forms of co-investment6.1 Partne
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8. Taxation and incentives8.1 Direc
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10. Labour laws10.1 Foreign workers
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GILLETT, PRESTON AND ASSOCIATES INC
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Page 21. EXECUTIVE SUMMARYPearl far
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Page 42. BACKGROUNDPast research su
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Page 6million; in 2002, it exported
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Page 8the bead in an even, uniform
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Page 10alternative products. Most m
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Page 12fisheries-related activities
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Page 144.3. PolicyThe current gover
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5.2. Stocking densityPage 16Mature
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Page 18or harmful fouling organisms
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Page 20In addition to licensing und
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Page 22Much of this work will have
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Page 24provide them with technical
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Page 26management, disease control,
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Page 28Ministry of Development Plan
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Page 30‘seeding’ means the impl
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Page 326. Provision of statistical
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Page 3414. Aggrieved person may app
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Page 36Division V. Importation, mov
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Page 38(2) Separate fees are payabl
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Page 40Other forms of government su
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Page 42Solomon IslandsPEARL FARMING
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