Jackson2013-Status and Trendsof Caribbean Coral Reefs

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Fig. 5.2 Average percent cover of live corals (A) and macroalgae (B), density of Diadema antillarum (C), and biomass of groupers and parrotfishes (D) in Bermuda. Dotted line represents the average of Caribbean data collected for this report; solid line is drawn through data presented (Codes same as in Table 5.1 and Figure 5.1). Timeline 1791: First law passed to prohibit the use of fish pots 1789: Lt. Thomas Hurd and the Royal Navy initiates the first very high accuracy mapping of Bermuda coral reefs across the entire platform, which was completed in 1798 1921: First Fisheries Act passed, with restrictions on taking of certain species, imposition of minimum sizes, closing of specific areas to fishing 1941: Massive land-reclamation projects, via blasting and dredging, began in Castle Harbour and removed 24 hectares of coral reefs and 18 hectares of seagrass beds in Castle Harbour, local extinction of 10 fish species 1947: Fisheries Regulations established controls on fishing nets, taking of lobster during the breeding season, minimum size and weight restrictions for certain species, restriction on use of fish pots in inshore areas 1963: Fisheries Regulations updated with restriction on fishing, registration of fishermen, and control of spearfishing that prohibited the use of “aqualungs”. 1966: North shore and south shore coral reef preserves created; netting of parrotfishes along the south shore was prohibited. Taking of corals in preserves is prohibited. 1972: Second Fisheries Act and Fisheries Regulations imposing restriction on the use of fish pots, licensing of fishermen and fishing vessels and reporting of catch statistics. 1975: First coral disease, Black Band Disease reported Red hind spawning grounds closed to fishing May through August under the Fisheries (Protected Areas) Order 1978: Fisheries (Protected Species) Order enacted to protect all corals, conchs, specific bivalves and gastropods. 1980: Moratorium on the issuance of permits for new fish pots. 1983: Diadema antillarum die-off recorded. 1987: Hurricane Emily (Category 3) 1988: First coral bleaching event reported, recurring bleaching events have occurred sporadically since 1988 but have never resulted in a substantive mortality. 1990: Fish pot fishery is banned, ex-gratia payments made to fishermen; fisheries (Protected Areas) Order establishes eleven marine protected areas. 1992: CARICOMP monitoring programme for coral reefs, seagrass beds and mangroves initiated by S.R. Smith. Coral cover remained stable from 1992 to 2002. 1993: All parrotfishes (Scaridae) added to the Fisheries (Protected Species) Order. 1995: Minor coral bleaching noted. 1996: Fisheries (Protected Areas) Order establishes another marine protected area The Bermuda Biodiversity Project (BBP), a collaboration of the Bermuda Natural History Museum and the Bermuda Zoological Society, was initiated by Wolfgang Sterrer and Anne Glasspool. Various large grouper species (Epinephelus spp. and Mycteroperca spp.) added to the Fisheries (Protected Species) Order. STATUS AND TRENDS OF CARIBBEAN CORAL REEFS: 1969-2012 133
1997: Fisheries (Protected Areas) Order establishes another marine protected area. Jack Ward of the Bermuda Government Department of Conservation Services, and Anne Glasspool of BBP, commission the first digital island‐wide high‐resolution georeferenced aerial mosaic of the entire shallow reef platform. 1998: First coral disease surveys initiated by C. McKinney and S.R. Smith; documented low levels of incidence and minor coral bleaching. Annie Glasspool (BBP) directs the Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan for Bermuda, with UK DEFRA (Darwin) funding 2000: Fisheries (Protected Areas) Order establishes 16 more marine protected areas, bringing the total to 29. Seasonal closure of spawning areas extended; CARICOMP monitoring program documents complete loss of seagrasses at study sites. 2001: First invasive lionfish (Pterois volitans) reported. 2003: Reef surveys, including coral disease and bleaching, initiated by R.J. Jones continue annually until 2011, Coral cover remains stable in all reef zones and disease incidence remains low. 2003: Hurricane Fabian (Category 4), proceeded by high SSTs and coral bleaching, that diminished after the hurricane. 2004: Thaddeus Murdoch initiates the Bermuda Reef Ecosystem Assessment and Mapping (BREAM) Program at BZS, as the marine component of the BBP. BREAM maps to GIS all reefs and other marine habitats. BREAM initiates biodiversity assessment of lagoonal and rim reef habitats. 2005 Minor coral mortality event related to UV damage during low tides in April; minor coral bleaching event in August; Disease incidence remains low but four new diseases syndromes detected. Boat bottom paints containing organotin, irgarol or diuron compounds are prohibited 2006: Bermuda Benthic Habitat Mapping, Monitoring and Assessment Programme (BBMAP) established by S. Manuel to study 17 permanent seagrass and water quality sites, providing the first comprehensive platform-wide time series. 2007: Massive loss of lagoonal seagrass beds reported by Murdoch et al., expanding scope from the CARICOMP study. BREAM receives NOAA funding to assess MPA sites across the island for diver impact. Eagle ray population ecology studies initiated by Matthew Ajemian of the Dauphin Island Sea Lab AL, USA, with BREAM support. First seasonal closure for blue-striped grunt (Haemulidae) spawning aggregation area off St. Georges. Fishing prohibited May-June. 2008: First extended closure of the immediate area around the eastern black grouper spawning aggregation. Fishing prohibited 90 days from September 1 st , under the Fisheries Act 1972. 2009: BREAM initiates assessment of 100 MPA and forereef sites to 30m depth for fishes and benthic biota. 2010: First extended closure of the immediate area around a western black grouper spawning aggregation. Fishing prohibited 90 days from September 1 st , under the Fisheries Act 1972; Invasive lionfish become more common on fore-reef (20-60m). Fisheries Regulations amended again. Licenses now required for free-diving pole-spear fishing. Other spear-fishing gear and use of SCUBA remain illegal. Recently discovered historic map of Bermuda’s clearly shows loss of reefs to channel dredging and base construction. Spotted eagle rays added to Protected Species list, in response to fishing pressure. General Literature Burnett-Herkes J, Barnes JA (1996) Banning the use of pots and other management introduced in Bermuda to protect declining reef fish stocks. Proceedings of the 44th Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute. pp. 239-256. Burnett-Herkes J, Luckhurst BE, Ward J (1988) Management of antillian trap fisheries - Bermuda’s experience. Proceedings of the 39th Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute. Hamilton, Bermuda. pp. 5-11. Butler JN, Burnett-Herkes J, Barnes JA, Ward J (1993) The Bermuda fisheries: A tragedy of the commons averted? Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development 35: 7-33. Cook CB, Dodge RE, Smith SR (1994) Fifty years of impacts on coral reefs in Bermuda. In: Ginsburg RN, editor. Proceedings of the colloquium on global aspects of coral reefs: health, hazards and history. Miami, Florida: RSMAS, University of Miami. pp. 160-166. Cook CB, Logan A, Ward J, Luckhurt B, Berg CJ (1990) Elevated temperatures and bleaching on a high latitude reef: the 1988 bleaching event. Coral Reefs 9: 45-49. Dryer S, Logan A (1978) Holocene reefs and sediments of Castle Harbour, Bermuda. Journal of Marine Research 36: 339-425. Faiella G (2003) Fishing in Bermuda. Oxford, U.K.: Macmillan Publishers Limited. Flood VS, Pitt JM, Smith SR (2005) Historical and ecological analysis of coral communities in Castle Harbour (Bermuda) after more than a century of perturbation. Marine Pollution Bulletin 51: 545-557. 134 STATUS AND TRENDS OF CARIBBEAN CORAL REEFS: 1969-2012
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Status and Trends of Caribbean Cora
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Dedication: This book is dedicated
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Phase shifts ......................
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Introduction This is the 9th status
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Acknowledgments, Co-sponsors, and S
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Jeremy Jackson
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STRATEGY AND SCOPE OF THE PRESENT R
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The greatest overall changes in cor
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heating events are surprisingly fla
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PART I: OVERVIEW AND SYNTHESIS FOR
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A B C FIGURE 2. Decline in the comp
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Sampling units are defined as follo
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Table 2. List of coral reef locatio
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Country or Territory Location # of
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Compilation of the great majority o
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Two other major survey programs beg
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mean of 14.3 % (+2.0, -1.8). This l
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Changes in coral cover were similar
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FIGURE 13. Large-scale shifts from
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TABLE 5. Changes in coral and macro
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The disparate reef histories in Fig
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2b. ECOLOGICAL EXTINCTION OF FORMER
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Decline of Diadema antillarum Diade
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Table 7. Numbers of visitors and re
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Caribbean, where the mass mortality
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FIGURE 26. Percent coral cover in r
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or avoidance behavior by larvae and
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of disease and coral death. These a
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contrast, reefs on the Belize Centr
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TABLE 9. Average secchi disk depths
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Label Country Location DHW 1998 DHW
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2010 are surprisingly flat (Fig. 33
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Pacific lionfish Pterois volitans t
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Bruno et al. 2009). However, our re
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is, for example, for degree heating
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1. Ban all trap fishing, spearfishi
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Chollett I, Mumby PJ, Müller-Karge
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CH, Steneck RS, Tegner MJ, Warner R
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Rasher DB, Stout EP, Engel S, Kuban
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Appendices Appendix I Field Field O
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80 STATUS AND TRENDS OF CARIBBEAN C
Page 83 and 84: 82 STATUS AND TRENDS OF CARIBBEAN C
Page 101 and 102: Location Reference Data Contributor
Page 107 and 108: Davis GE (1982) A century of natura
Page 109 and 110: Roos PJ (1964) The distribution of
Page 111 and 112: Steneck RS (1994) Is herbivore loss
Page 113 and 114: PART II: REPORTS FOR INDIVIDUAL COU
Page 116 and 117: COUNTRIES, STATES, AND TERRITORIES
Page 118 and 119: Map Code Contributor Time Period Ye
Page 120 and 121: 7 Nagelkerkan, Bimini 2006 1 X Ivan
Page 122 and 123: Cheung WWL, Sadovy de Mitcheson Y (
Page 124 and 125: BARBADOS Coauthors: Caroline Bissad
Page 126 and 127: 2003-present: Sporadic outbreaks of
Page 128 and 129: BELIZE Coauthors: Nadia Bood, John
Page 130 and 131: Fig. 4.3 Average percent cover of m
Page 132 and 133: 24 Dustan P, King A, Treml E, Allin
Page 136 and 137: Fricke H, Meischner D (1985) Depth
Page 138 and 139: Map Code Contributor Location Time
Page 140 and 141: 10 Kramer PA, Bischof B.G. (2003) A
Page 142 and 143: Fig. 7.2 Average percent cover of l
Page 144 and 145: CAYMAN ISLANDS Coauthors: Timothy A
Page 146 and 147: Fig. 8.3 Diadema density and biomas
Page 148 and 149: COLOMBIA Coauthors: Alan Friedlande
Page 150 and 151: 1980s-1990: Macrolagal and coral di
Page 152 and 153: Published Data Sources 1 Coral A, C
Page 156 and 157: CUBA Coauthors: Pedro M. Alcolado,
Page 158 and 159: 2005: Hurricane Dennis (Category 4)
Page 160 and 161: CURAÇAO Coauthors: Rolf Bak, Dolfi
Page 162 and 163: Fig. 12.3 Average density of Diadem
Page 164 and 165: 18 Bruckner AW, Bruckner RJ (2003)
Page 166 and 167: Fig. 14.2 Average percent cover of
Page 168 and 169: Geraldes FX, Vega M, Ramírez H, Ro
Page 170 and 171: General Literature Borger JL, Stein
Page 174 and 175: Timeline 1878: Black water event ki
Page 176 and 177: 25 Forcucci D (1994) Population den
Page 178 and 179: Fig. 16.2 Average percent cover of
Page 180 and 181: Published Data Sources 1 Bright TJ,
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Chevaillier P (1990) Méthodes d’
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Map Code Contributor Location Time
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GUATEMALA Coauthors: Ana Giró, Mel
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Gutiérrez L (2007) Informe de avan
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Fig. 20.2 Average percent cover of
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JAMAICA Coauthors: Karl Aiken, Robe
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Munro JL, Williams DM (1985) Assess
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Timeline 11,000 CE: Human remains o
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Rodríguez-Martínez RE, Banaszak A
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April 2006: Multibeam mapping of is
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Map Contributor Location Time Perio
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6 Guzmán HM, Guevara CA (2001) Cor
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from disease and bleaching. Disease
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Timeline: 1987: Saba Marine Environ
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Lloyd G (2007) Review of the Policy
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TURKS & CAICOS ISLANDS Coauthors: B
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US VIRGIN ISLANDS Coauthors: Richar
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Beets J, Friedlander AM (1999) Eval
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39 Hay ME (1984) Patterns of fish a
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Bastidas C, Cróquer A, Zubillaga A
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Rodríguez-Ramírez A, Bastidas C,
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