Landfills and waste water treatment plants as sources of ... - GKSS

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INTRODUCTION Chen et al. 2007a; Hart et al. 2008; Löfstrand et al. 2008; Ahrens et al. 2009d; Hutter et al. 2009; Kelly et al. 2009). However, for musk fragrances the availability of biomonitoring data is rather limited compared to the other substance classes. Bioaccumulation and bioconcentration of PFCs are directly connected to the carbon chain length and increase with increasing number of fluorinated carbons (Conder et al. 2008). PFSAs are more bioaccumulative than its corresponding PFCAs of same chain length (Houde et al. 2006) PFCAs with chain length shorter than eight carbons are reported not to be bioaccumulative according to current regulatory criteria (Conder et al. 2008). The potential for bioaccumulation of PBDEs is directly linked to the size of the molecule. Therefore, lower brominated congeners (four to seven bromines) are more bioaccumulative with bioconcentration factors of higher than 5000 (Birnbaum and Staskal 2004). BDE209 has only limited bioavailability (De Wit 2002). Whereas, PBDEs and musk fragrances accumulate primarily in fatty tissues of animals and humans, PFCs are stored in protein-rich repositories such as liver, gall bladder and blood proteins (Hites 2004; Conder et al. 2008). For example, concentrations of PFOS and PFOA in liver from Artic polar bears ranged from 263-6340 and 2-9 ng g -1 , respectively (Smithwick et al. 2005). PBDEs were recently detected in adipose tissue of polar bears from various arctic locations and ranged from 2.91-132 ng g -1 dominated by BDE47 (Muir et al. 2005). Kannan et al. (2005) observed polycyclic musk HHCB between 4 and 25 ng g -1 in the blubbers of dolphins and whales. Half-life time of PFOS in monkeys is reported to be 150 days, whereas that of PFOA was 30 and 21 days for female and male, respectively (Lau et al. 2007). Half-lives in rats of commercial pentaBDE congeners were determined between 19-105 days and were increasing with increased degree of bromination (Birnbaum and Cohen Hubal 2006). MX has a calculated half-life time in humans of 100 days (Kokot-Helbling et al. 1995). In fish they are rather short (3 d for MX and MK) (Tas et al. 1997). Furthermore, PFCs and PBDEs were reported to accumulate in the marine food web with significant increases towards higher trophic levels (Sørmo et al. 2006; Kelly et al. 2009). In contrast, biomagnification of musk fragrances to higher trophic levels was less pronounced (Kannan et al. 2005; Nakata 2005). 1.4.3 Toxicity PFCs, PBDEs and musk fragrances are subject to various toxicologically effects in humans and animals. In general, acute toxicities of PFCs are moderate but increase with chain-length 14
INTRODUCTION (Lau et al. 2007). In animal studies mainly on PFOS and PFOA, it was observed that PFCs induce a number of adverse effects. PFOS and PFOA were reported to cause increased liver weight and hepatocytic hypertrophies (Kennedy et al. 2004). Favoured by their molecular structure those substances were observed to bind to proteins in cell membranes, where they influence the fluidity of the membranes (Hu et al. 2003). Although not genotoxic, PFOS and PFOA promoted tumour growth in rats (Roos et al. 2008). Some PFCs, e.g. 6:2 and 8:2 FTOH induce breast cancer proliferation probably because of biodegradation to PFCAs (Jensen and Leffers 2008). In addition, PFCs can act as endocrine disruptors (Jensen and Leffers 2008). On the basis of experimental approaches with test animals, the impact on human health was assessed. The risks for the general population are expected to be low (Fromme et al. 2006). However, Fromme et al. (2006) reported that that elevated occupational exposure can be within the magnitude of toxicological relevant concentrations. There is growing concern about the toxicology of PBDEs because of their structural similarities to other polyhalogenated aromatic hydrocarbons, such as polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxins. Although, some PBDEs have comparable structures, they are not supposed to be dioxin-like (Birnbaum et al. 2006). Although, congener specific data is still lacking, PBDE toxicity depends on the bromine content of the respective congeners. Toxicity decreases in the order of pentaBDE> octaBDE> decaBDE (Darnerud et al. 2001). Acute toxicities for all PBDE congeners are reported to be low (Hardy 2002). There is no evidence on BDE209 carcinogenicity as well as effects on reproduction and development in rats, probably because 99 % of this congener is rapidly discreted by faeces (Hardy 2002). In contrast, octa- and pentaBDE were well absorbed and only slowly eliminated. They are expected to be carcinogenic and exposure has been linked to tumour formation, but clear evidence has not been published yet (Vonderheide et al. 2008). Penta- and octaBDE mixtures are reported to have thyroid-disrupting properties which are likely due to structural similarities to the endogenous hormones (Vonderheide et al. 2008). PentaBDE have also been perceived to interfere the sexual and fetal development as well as the ability for reproduction in males (Stoker et al. 2005; Lilienthal et al. 2006). Toxicological studies on musk fragrances revealed no severe health risks for aquatic organisms since environmental concentration are under the threshold for acute or chronic toxicity (Tas et al. 1997; Balk and Ford 1999; HERA 2004; Gooding et al. 2006). Nevertheless, nitro musks MK and MX are reported to induce toxifying liver enzymes in mice and rats and can therefore act as a cogenotoxicants (Mersch-Sundermann et al. 1996). Both, nitro musks and polycyclic musk are inhibitors for efflux transport proteins that normally 15
Page 1: ISSN 0344-9629 Landfills and waste
Page 4 and 5: Die Berichte der GKSS werden kosten
Page 6 and 7: Deponien und Kläranlagen als Quell
Page 8 and 9: TABLE OF CONTENTS VI 4.2.5 Extracti
Page 10 and 11: LIST OF FIGURES Figure 20: Proporti
Page 12 and 13: LIST OF TABLES Table S6: Table of r
Page 14 and 15: ABBREVIATIONS BDE47 2,2',4,4'-Tetra
Page 16 and 17: ABBREVIATIONS MW molecular weight M
Page 18 and 19: 2 INTRODUCTION
Page 20 and 21: INTRODUCTION 175 chemicals classifi
Page 22 and 23: INTRODUCTION Table 1 cont. Analytes
Page 24 and 25: INTRODUCTION Table 3: Polycyclic mu
Page 26 and 27: INTRODUCTION Mabury 2006). This inc
Page 28 and 29: INTRODUCTION 1.3 Physico-chemical p
Page 30 and 31: INTRODUCTION 1.4 Environmental conc
Page 34 and 35: INTRODUCTION prevent xenobiotica fr
Page 36 and 37: INTRODUCTION al. 2009c) and being d
Page 38 and 39: INTRODUCTION Table 6: Selection of
Page 40 and 41: INTRODUCTION 1.5 Sources Sources of
Page 42 and 43: OBJECTIVES 2. Objectives In recent
Page 44 and 45: METHOD OPTIMISATION Simonich et al.
Page 46 and 47: METHOD OPTIMISATION used as carrier
Page 48 and 49: METHOD OPTIMISATION 3.3 Extraction
Page 50 and 51: METHOD OPTIMISATION 3.3 Results 3.3
Page 52 and 53: METHOD OPTIMISATION AHMI). For less
Page 54 and 55: METHOD OPTIMISATION 3.3.5 Extractio
Page 56 and 57: METHOD OPTIMISATION 3.4 Discussion
Page 58 and 59: METHOD OPTIMISATION partly due to h
Page 60 and 61: METHOD OPTIMISATION Figure 7: Final
Page 62 and 63: STUDY 1: LANDFILLS AS SOURCES volat
Page 64 and 65: STUDY 1: LANDFILLS AS SOURCES On ea
Page 66 and 67: STUDY 1: LANDFILLS AS SOURCES (Supe
Page 68 and 69: STUDY 1: LANDFILLS AS SOURCES Table
Page 70 and 71: STUDY 1: LANDFILLS AS SOURCES 52 c
Page 74 and 75: STUDY 1: LANDFILLS AS SOURCES 4.3.2
Page 78 and 79: STUDY 1: LANDFILLS AS SOURCES 4.5 D
Page 80 and 81: STUDY 1: LANDFILLS AS SOURCES conce
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STUDY 1: LANDFILLS AS SOURCES influ
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STUDY 2: WASTE WATER TREATMENT PLAN
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CONCLUSIONS AND OUTLOOK BDE183 were
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REFERENCES wastewater treatment/pol
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REFERENCES Capuano, F. Cavalchi, B.
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REFERENCES Dreyer, A. Temme, C. Stu
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REFERENCES Harada, K. Nakanishi, S.
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REFERENCES Kallenborn, R. Gatermann
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REFERENCES sexual development, and
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REFERENCES Oros, D. R. Hoover, D. R
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REFERENCES Rimkus, G. (1995): Nitro
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REFERENCES Smithwick, M. Mabury, S.
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REFERENCES USEPA (2006): 2010/2015
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REFERENCES Zhao, Y.-X. Qin, X.-F. L
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SUPPORTING INFORMATION Figure S3: H
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SUPPORTING INFORMATION Table S1: Ta
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SUPPORTING INFORMATION Table S2: Ma
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SUPPORTING INFORMATION Table S5: Ta
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SUPPORTING INFORMATION Table S7: Bl
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SUPPORTING INFORMATION Table S11: P
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SUPPORTING INFORMATION Figure S7: S
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SUPPORTING INFORMATION Figure S7 co
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SUPPORTING INFORMATION Table S16: T
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SUPPORTING INFORMATION Table S19: M
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Page 154:
ERKLÄRUNG DER SELBSTSTÄNDIGEN VER
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