DDK HistoryF.p65 - CSIR

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108 NOTES TO CHAPTER IV 6. These myths gain added significance from India’s striking off friendlier heads : once that of the non-Aryan Vi§nu; again of his own fire-priest Dadhyanc Atharvana. The latter had thoughtfully been fitted with a horse’s head by the twin Nasatyas, who simply put back his original head after the contretemps. The horse’s head so cut off was thrown into a mere called Saryanavat, whence it rises periodically to phophecy. This is reminiscent of the horse’s head found in Danish excavations what had been a small pond, just as the find of unbroken horse’s skeletons in Danish oak-lined pits are related to the Indian horse-sacrifice with its ubadhya-gohaka pit wherein the entrails and carefully disjointed bones were to be deposited, insulated from contact with the earth by a grass lining. The horse being an Aryan beast, the later legends cannot be easily related to decapitated non-Aryan demons. 7. The sole Rgvedic reference to the four later castes : brahmin, k$atriya, vailya, sudra is in 10.90, itself a late addition. The castes were there engendered from the sacrifice of a primordial man (purusa) by the ancient Sadhya gods, who seem to be pre-Aryan, being very rarely mentioned. The hymn obviously creates religious authority for a social state that had none except force and usage. 8. The full details of Yajurvedic horse-sacrifice have been confirmed by the discovery of inscribed bricks with which the sacrificial altars were built. The actual sites found near Hardwar date just about the beginning of the Christian era, but the confirmation is valuable nevertheless. 9. In RV. 1.65,7, Agni is described as eating up the forests as a king the ibhyas. The word ibhya was taken by Geldner to mean vassals rich enough to maintain elephants. Such a feudal order is certainly not confirmed by the Ftgveda. In the fifth Asokan rock edict, ibhya occurs as antithetical to brahmin, hence a very low caste ; the same sense of low unclean boors is implied by the Ambatthasutta, (Dighanikaya 3), and by the Chandogya Upani§ad 1.10. 1-2 with its story of the famished brahmin lJ§asti Cakrayana. The Rgvedic king then devoured only people outside the tribe, whether by looting rich Dasas or oppressing poor autochthones of the elephant totem who are later known as the lowly elephant drivers. MN 95 end gives the same low meaning for ibbho; the Desindmamala equates it with vanik, trader. The Jataka gloss uses the secondary meaning as well-to-do gahapatika, though to Buddhaghosa gahapti meant the independent yeoman who tilled his own land in person. Only the low person, and a rich one could fit the context of Jat 543 (Fausboll 6.214), and Jat. 544. 10. For this exegetical work appended to the IJgveda, the Aitareya Brahmana (the translation of A. B. Keith, HOS. 25, 1920) has been used ; the particular chapter of the Brahmana is known to be a late addition, so that the developments cannot be Rgvedic. 11. For the $atapatha Brahmana, (exegesis to Yajurvedic ritual) Eggeling’s translation SBE. vols. 12, 26, 41, 43, 44 (Oxford 1882-1900) is re-comtnended, for its fine index.
NOTES TO CHAPTER IV 109 12. In addition to the reference in note 4, the reader might find my essay review Brahmin Clans (JAOS. 73, 1953, pp. 202-208) of some interest. The best description of the gotra system as accepted by modern brahmin is in J. Brough : The early brahmanical system of gotra and pravara (Cambridge, 1953) ; Brough’s correction in JAOS. 74, 1955, pp. 263-266 is justified in that I mistook the Matsya-purdna account as the prototype of gotra lists now extant. 13. My own gotra being Vasi§tha, there is no question of prejudice against this upstart ancestor. The name, though Aryan, means “ most excellent”, hence looks assumed. Each clan retained their distinctive hair-dressing in later times. The Bhrgus were shave-pates, Gotamas and BharadvSjas had five hair-crests, Atreyas three hair-twists, Vasisthas a single twist to the right. The Vasi$tha type of hair-braid is not discernible on Indus seals; but the Egyptian statue of Khonshu has such hair-dressing. Even more clearly a solitary figure (a priest ?) in an Egyptian relief illustrating a group of Hittite prisoners (Gurney, The Hittites, plate 2, bis), fits the Vasi^ha description daksinatas-kapardah.
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AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF IND
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PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION THIS b
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PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION xiii a
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PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION xv Rgv
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ABBREVIATIONS AND BIBLIOGRAPHY AB A
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xxi ABBREVIATIONS AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
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ABBREVIATIONS AND BIBLIOGRAPHY I-ts
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ABBREVIATIONS AND BIBLIOGRAPHY t xx
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CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE No chronology
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XXIX CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE crowns a
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Ixiv COMMENTARY TO ILLUSTRATIONS 6.
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COMMENTARY TO ILLUSTRATIONS number
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Ixviii COMMENTARY TO ILLUSTRATIONS
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CHAPTER I SCOPE AND METHODS 1.1. Sp
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1.1J GANGEYADEVA ‘AND BENGAL 3 (w
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1.1] LEGENDS NOT HISTORY 5 still cu
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1.2] ARCHAEOLOGY AND ETHNOGRAPHY 7
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1.3J THE MATERIALIST APPROACH 9 kno
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1.3] VILLAGE PRODUCTION 11 “These
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1.3] FUNDAMENTAL QUESTIONS 13 were
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NOTES TO CHAPTER I 15 3. F. E. Parg
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CHAPTER II THE HERITAGE OF PRE- CLA
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2.1] EARLY TOOLS AND MATERIALS 19 T
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2.2] TRIBAL STRUCTURE 21 built, lik
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2.2] RITUAL AND SACRIFICE 23 But sl
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2.2] POWER OF GROUP LIFE 25 The bas
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2.3] CASTES FROM TRIBES 27 tribal p
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2.3] PARDHI CUSTOMS 29 clans are no
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2.3] VAIDUS AND VADDARS 31 The buri
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2.3] THE PROCESS OF ABSORPTION 33 I
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2.4] VETALA AND HANUMAN 35 converte
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2.4] 37 STONE MICROLITHS which has
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2.4] THE PASTORAL GODS 39 that beyo
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2.5] TREE CULTS 41 (a demon), Kalub
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2.5] SYNCRETISM IN CULTS 43 is marr
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2.5] ANCIENT SURVIVALS 45 has been
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SURVIVAL OF PRIMITIVE IMPLEMENTS 47
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2.6J ARCHAIC POTTERY TECHNIQUE 49 m
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NOTES TO CHAPTER II 51 castes many
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CHAPTER III CIVILIZATION AND BARBAR
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3.1] INCORRECT AND CORRECT DEDUCTIO
Page 83 and 84: 3.2] IMPORTANCE OF RIPARIAN DESERTS
Page 85 and 86: 3,2] TRADE WITH BABYLON 59 similari
Page 87 and 88: 3.2] NAVIGATION, INTERNAL TRADE 61
Page 89 and 90: 3.3] FORCE OR RELIGION? 63 containi
Page 91 and 92: 3.3] DOMINANCE OF RELIGION 65 a cul
Page 93 and 94: 3.4] PROBLEM OF FOOT PRODUCTION 67
Page 95 and 96: 3.4] METHODS OF CULTIVATION 69 Indi
Page 97 and 98: 3.4] FLOOD IRRIGATION 71 but does n
Page 99 and 100: 3.4) HARAPPA IN THE RGVEDA 73 Harap
Page 101 and 102: 3.4] DESTRUCTION OF THE DAMS 75 Thi
Page 103 and 104: NOTES TO CHAPTER III 77 R. E. M. Wh
Page 105 and 106: NOTES TO CHAPTER III 79 The very ac
Page 107 and 108: 4.1J ARYANS IN HISTORY 81 Aryans in
Page 109 and 110: 4. 1J TWO ARYAN WAVES 83 The commun
Page 111 and 112: 4.1J DEMOLITION OF BARRIERS 85 diff
Page 113 and 114: 4.2] OLD ARYAN GODS 87 The novice w
Page 115 and 116: 4.2] CONTINUED FOREIGN CONTACTS 89
Page 117 and 118: 4.3] MYTH AND HISTORY 91 The second
Page 119 and 120: 4.3] HUMAN AND DEMONIC DASAS 93 ult
Page 121 and 122: 4.3J PURUS, BHRGUS, TRTSUS 95 in RV
Page 123 and 124: 4.4] THE FORMATION OF THE FIRST CAS
Page 125 and 126: 4.4] FOUR CLASS-CASTES 99 intermarr
Page 127 and 128: 4.5] ORIGINS OF BRAHMINISM 101 It h
Page 129 and 130: 4.5] NEED FOR AN URBAN BACKGROUND 1
Page 131 and 132: 4.5] BRAHMIN GOTRAS FROM TRIBES 105
Page 133: NOTES TO CHAPTER IV 107 Kasi-Kosala
Page 137 and 138: 5.1] MODE OF LIVING 111 only in the
Page 139 and 140: 5. 1J ANTHROPOMETRY of such measure
Page 141 and 142: 5.2] EFFECT OF THE PLOUGH 115 into
Page 143 and 144: 5.2] NEED FOR CRITICAL EDITIONS 117
Page 145 and 146: 5.3] RISE OF NEW TRIBES 119 in the
Page 147 and 148: 5.3] CATTLE, CROPS, TRADE 121 be an
Page 149 and 150: 5.4] ARYAN LAND-CLEARING 123 design
Page 151 and 152: 5.5] UTOPIAN KURUS ; IKSVAKUS 125 w
Page 153 and 154: 5.5] BHRGU MYTHS 127 Just why he ha
Page 155 and 156: 5.6] DIFFUSION OF NAGA CULTURE 129
Page 157 and 158: 5.6] TOTEMIC SURVIVALS 131 Totemism
Page 159 and 160: 5.7J POOR PRIEST-CLASS 133 Both got
Page 161 and 162: 5.8J MIXED BRAHMINS 135 6.4.16 for
Page 163 and 164: 5.8] SESAMUM OIL 137 The word taila
Page 165 and 166: 5.8J NEW FORMS OF PROPERTY 139 now
Page 167 and 168: 5.9] CHANGES IN SOCIAL STRUCTURE 14
Page 169 and 170: NOTES TO CHAPTER V 143 Satyakama Ja
Page 171 and 172: 6.1] THE PUNJAB 145 destruction of
Page 173 and 174: 6.1J DEBT AND USURY 147 down to Kau
Page 175 and 176: 6.2] CONTEMPORARY GANGETIC TRIBES 1
Page 177 and 178: 6.2] TRIBAL JANAPADAS 151 Pavarika,
Page 179 and 180: 6.3J BASIS OF ABSOLUTE MONARCHT 153
Page 181 and 182: 6.3J MAGADHAN CONTROL OF METALS 155
Page 183 and 184: 157 Fig. 20. Later Kosalan coinage
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6.$J THE FALL OF KOSALA 159 brahmin
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6.4J DESTRUCTION OF THE LICCHAVIS 1
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6.5] CONTEMPORARY MAGADHAN SECTS 16
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6.6J; NEW DOCTRINES 165 committed i
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6.6} PROPERTY AND RELIGION 167 upon
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6.6] CASTE 169 bearing the message
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6.7J THE GREAT NEGATION ; TAXILA 17
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6.7J APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 173
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6.7J SYSTEM OF PUNCH-MARKS 175 Thou
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NANDAS 177 the humped bull ) may be
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ROYAL MARKS ON COINS 179 Fig. 26. W
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6.7J RUIN OF TAXILA 181 They also s
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6.7] INFORMATION FROM HOARDS 183 So
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CHAPTER VII THE FORMATION OF A VILL
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MAURYAN CONQUESTS 187 manifestation
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7.2] ALEXANDER AT TAXILA 189 Fig. 3
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7.2] INDIAN MILITARY TACTICS 191 Th
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7.2ij MEGASTHENES ON MAGADHAN SOCIE
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AUTONOMOUS JANAPADAS 195 anywhere i
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7.3J ASOKAN MONUMENTS 197 ; only a
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7.3J KINSHIP ; TRACK ROUTES 199 kin
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ECONOMIC STRAIN 201 be it would hav
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7.3] ATTACHMENT TO BUDDHISM 203 bes
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7.3] INFLUENCE UPON RELIGION 205 Th
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7.3J NEW IDEAL OF KINGSHIP 207 admi
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7:4] THE LANGUAGE OF ASOKAN EDICTS
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7.4] SUPPORT FOR EARLIER DATE 211 T
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7.4] TECHNIQUE OF DISRUPTING TRIBES
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7.4] ARTHASASTRA REALISM 215 occupa
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7.5J STATE CONTROL 217 regulations,
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7.5] REGISTRATION OF RESOURCES 219
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7.5] SCALES OF PAYMENT; LABOUR SERV
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7.6] DEPRECIATION OF CURRENCY 223 p
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7..6J APPORTIONMENT OF LAND 225 feu
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227 of servitude (as were other bon
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7.7] FORMATION OF CROWN VILLAGES 22
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231 Here the rastra private village
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234 herdsmen-under observation, pro
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236 READJUSTMENT TO THE NEW LIFE [7
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CHAPTER VIII INTERLUDE OF TRADE AND
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242 KAMASUTRA OF VATSYAYANA [8.1 im
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244 TRADE AND PILGRIMAGE [8.1 a spl
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246 GREEK INVADERS [8.1 Now, with n
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248 NEW TRIBES AND KINGDOMS [8.1 th
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250 NEED FOR A CALENDAR [8.2 commen
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252 MANUSMRTI THEORY OF THE STATE [
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254 DIFFERENTIAL EXPLOITATION [8.3
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256 ABSENCE OF UNIFORM LAWS [8.3 si
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258 GROWTH OF RUSTICITY [8.4 cannot
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260 NEW PERSONAL GODS [8.4- Bhagabh
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262 THE SOUTHERN TRACK ROUTE [8.5 a
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264 MOTHER GODDESSES OF UNIQUE NAME
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266 BUDDHIST CAVE-COMPLEXES [8.5 bu
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268 WEALTH OF CAVE FOUNDATIONS [8.5
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270 TYPES OF DONORS [8.6 settlement
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272 POWER OF GUILDS [8.6 half a doz
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274 COCONUTS AND COMMODITY PRODUTTI
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276 SATAVAHANA TRADE [8.6 and lead;
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278 ANOMALOUS DEVELOPMENT OF SANSKR
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280 PRIEST AND PRINCE [S.7 The thre
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282 GRAMMARIANS ; IDEALISM ; FLORID
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284 TECHNICAL LITERATURE [8.7 liter
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286 RELATION TO FEUDALISM [8.8 pros
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288 ‘ LITTLE CLAY CART ‘ [8.8 f
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290 KARAGA FESTIVAL [ 8 . & immutab
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292 INFLUENCE UPON THE VERNACULARS
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294 NOTES TO CHAPTER VIII original
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296 THE POLICE GULMA [9.1 intermedi
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298 UPPER INDIA UNDER THE GUPTAS [9
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300 TAXES AND TRIBUTES [9.1 This de
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302 WATERWORKS BHOJA [9.1 trade, po
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304 RUIN OF PATNA [9.2 of village e
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306 WARS OF RELIGION [9.2 The chari
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308 CHINESE ACCOUNTS OF INDIA [9.3
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310 CHANGES IN FEUDAL STRUCTURE [9.
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312 TRIBAL ALLIANCES OF THE, GUPTAS
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314 CASTE AND CLASS ; BUDDHISM [9.4
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316 ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES [9.4 c
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318 FROM TRIBE TO CASTE (9,4 fighti
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320 INDIVIDUAL HOLDINGS [9.5 commit
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322 TRANSFER OF STATE RIGHTS 19.5 t
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324 MODEL FOR FEUDAL PROPERTY [9.6
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326 RISE OF MAYtJRASARMAN [9.6 Mayu
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328 VILLAGE COMMUNITY IN GOA [9.6 n
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330 LOCAL CONDITIONS IN GOA [9.6 hi
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332 SHARING OF THE PROFIT [9.6 They
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334 AN IMPRESSIVE MONUMENT [9.7 tho
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336 THE GOSTHl J PROBLEMS OF TECHNI
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338 CONTEMPORARY SURVIVALS [9.7 giv
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340 ARTISANS IN AMARAKO^A [9.7 like
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342 NOTES TO CHAPTER IX descriptive
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344 NOTES TO CHAPTER IX which was t
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Fig. 41. Wet field (paddy-rice) cul
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Fig. 43. Kitchen-gardening and tool
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Fig. 45. Village Oil Press. The art
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Fig. 47. This is not one of the ess
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354 CONTRAST WITH EUROPEAN FEUDALIS
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356 STEADY IMPORT OF HORSES [ 10.1
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358 INEVITABILITY OF INVASION [10.1
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360 SUPERIORITY OF FOREIGN SHIPPING
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362 NECESSITY FOR TRADING BARONS [1
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364 DEVELOPMENT OF KASMIR 10.2 They
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366 ECONOMICS OF ICOCLASM [10.2 in
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368 STRUCTURE OF VIJAYNAGAR EMPIRE
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370 RAJPUT HIERARCHY ; THE MARKET [
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372 SANSKRIT IN THE XIITH CENTURY [
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374 ALAUDDIN’S MEASURES [10.4 liv
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376 PRICE CONTROL AT THE CENTRE [10
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378 TAXES, WATER-WORKS, SLAVERY [10
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380 SLAVERY IN THE XIXTH CENTURY [1
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382 DEVELOPMENT OF FEUDAL TENURE [1
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384 TAX-COLLECTION AND ARMED FORCES
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386 EPHEMERAL CITIES [ 10.5 The eph
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388 LABOURING CLASS POVERTY [10.5 t
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390 ECONOMIC BASES OF RELIGIOUS TEN
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392 A BOURGEOIS VIEW [10.6 the very
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394 TRADING BARONS [10.6 estimated
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396 PRE-CONDITIONS FOR BOURGEOIS DE
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398 PAYMENT OF SUPPLIES [10.7 aband
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400 CRACKS IN THE MILITARY SYSTEM [
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402 CHEAPER TAX-COLLECTION [10.7 su
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404 NOTES TO CHAPTER X 2. The quota
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