DDK HistoryF.p65 - CSIR

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178 WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION 16.7 was of low birth. The Mauryans seem to have come immediately after him, for no other coinage intervenes between his and the newest issue in the hoard. These newest coins can only be those of Candragupta Maurya. The Peshawar hoard shows Mahapadma’s coins counterstruck with the Mauryan crescent-on-arches, for reissue, which supports the conclusion that a violent change of dynasty accompanied the change of coinage. The wealth of the Nandas was proverbial. The tradition i.s confirmed by the high standard of their coinage, with richer alloy, thinner and finer fabric. The Mauryan coins (after the first ruler) show a far greater pressure upon the currency, reflected by a heavier debasement (copper more than half the alloy !), and much cruder initial weighing. During the second world war, the same phenomenon could be noticed with British Indian coins, which were successively of cheaper and cheaper metal, with decidedly more variation in minted weight, though supplemented by a flood of paper currency. The difference between the Mauryan and pre-Mauryan coins is manifested by comparison of the hoard with another of 183 Mauryan punch-marked coins found also in the Bhor mound, approximately dated by a fresh coin of Diodotos to about 248 B. C. The reverse (tails) marks are far more interesting in their own way. Pre-Mauryan coins were issued without any reverse ma r ks at all many being found with blank reverse. These marks are much smaller than on the obverse, not to.be grouped into fixed sets, and far more in number than the obverse. If one ignores the ‘ heads’ and merely groups the coins by the number of marks on the reverse, then the remarkable fact emerges that the average weight goes down regularly (fig. 27) with the increase in number of reverse marks. The correlation is exactly the same as with pre-war British Indian rupees and their dates. Now these reverse marks are found even on Persian coins from the Levant, so they could not have been Maga-dhan, nor royal. They seem to belong to traders, who were financiers, bankers, and dealers in precious metals at the same time. To this day, such Indian ‘ Shroffs’ have their own marks known only to initiates, which they put on a piece of tested metal to record the fact of testing. In our case, the marks would correspond to modern countersignatures on
ROYAL MARKS ON COINS 179 Fig. 26. Weight distribution of silver punch-marked coins from the 1’iixilii hoard, and comparison with Indus “class D” stone weights. bills or cheques cleared through business houses. In size and individuality, they resemble American train conductor’s ticket punches. It must be remembered that coins were often of private manufacture, allowed to circulate after the royal marks had been punched on. Moreover, any piece of metal would be as good as a coin, if it had the right amount of silver in it. This is seen from pieces found at Mohenjodaro which have no marks at all but have been cut off from a silver plate to approximately the class ‘ D’ weight (54 grains),
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AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF IND
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PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION THIS b
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PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION xiii a
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PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION xv Rgv
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ABBREVIATIONS AND BIBLIOGRAPHY AB A
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xxi ABBREVIATIONS AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
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ABBREVIATIONS AND BIBLIOGRAPHY I-ts
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ABBREVIATIONS AND BIBLIOGRAPHY t xx
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CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE No chronology
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XXIX CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE crowns a
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Ixiv COMMENTARY TO ILLUSTRATIONS 6.
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COMMENTARY TO ILLUSTRATIONS number
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Ixviii COMMENTARY TO ILLUSTRATIONS
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CHAPTER I SCOPE AND METHODS 1.1. Sp
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1.1J GANGEYADEVA ‘AND BENGAL 3 (w
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1.1] LEGENDS NOT HISTORY 5 still cu
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1.2] ARCHAEOLOGY AND ETHNOGRAPHY 7
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1.3J THE MATERIALIST APPROACH 9 kno
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1.3] VILLAGE PRODUCTION 11 “These
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1.3] FUNDAMENTAL QUESTIONS 13 were
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NOTES TO CHAPTER I 15 3. F. E. Parg
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CHAPTER II THE HERITAGE OF PRE- CLA
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2.1] EARLY TOOLS AND MATERIALS 19 T
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2.2] TRIBAL STRUCTURE 21 built, lik
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2.2] RITUAL AND SACRIFICE 23 But sl
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2.2] POWER OF GROUP LIFE 25 The bas
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2.3] CASTES FROM TRIBES 27 tribal p
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2.3] PARDHI CUSTOMS 29 clans are no
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2.3] VAIDUS AND VADDARS 31 The buri
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2.3] THE PROCESS OF ABSORPTION 33 I
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2.4] VETALA AND HANUMAN 35 converte
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2.4] 37 STONE MICROLITHS which has
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2.4] THE PASTORAL GODS 39 that beyo
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2.5] TREE CULTS 41 (a demon), Kalub
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2.5] SYNCRETISM IN CULTS 43 is marr
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2.5] ANCIENT SURVIVALS 45 has been
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SURVIVAL OF PRIMITIVE IMPLEMENTS 47
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2.6J ARCHAIC POTTERY TECHNIQUE 49 m
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NOTES TO CHAPTER II 51 castes many
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CHAPTER III CIVILIZATION AND BARBAR
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3.1] INCORRECT AND CORRECT DEDUCTIO
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3.2] IMPORTANCE OF RIPARIAN DESERTS
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3,2] TRADE WITH BABYLON 59 similari
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3.2] NAVIGATION, INTERNAL TRADE 61
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3.3] FORCE OR RELIGION? 63 containi
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3.3] DOMINANCE OF RELIGION 65 a cul
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3.4] PROBLEM OF FOOT PRODUCTION 67
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3.4] METHODS OF CULTIVATION 69 Indi
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3.4] FLOOD IRRIGATION 71 but does n
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3.4) HARAPPA IN THE RGVEDA 73 Harap
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3.4] DESTRUCTION OF THE DAMS 75 Thi
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NOTES TO CHAPTER III 77 R. E. M. Wh
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NOTES TO CHAPTER III 79 The very ac
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4.1J ARYANS IN HISTORY 81 Aryans in
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4. 1J TWO ARYAN WAVES 83 The commun
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4.1J DEMOLITION OF BARRIERS 85 diff
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4.2] OLD ARYAN GODS 87 The novice w
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4.2] CONTINUED FOREIGN CONTACTS 89
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4.3] MYTH AND HISTORY 91 The second
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4.3] HUMAN AND DEMONIC DASAS 93 ult
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4.3J PURUS, BHRGUS, TRTSUS 95 in RV
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4.4] THE FORMATION OF THE FIRST CAS
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4.4] FOUR CLASS-CASTES 99 intermarr
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4.5] ORIGINS OF BRAHMINISM 101 It h
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4.5] NEED FOR AN URBAN BACKGROUND 1
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4.5] BRAHMIN GOTRAS FROM TRIBES 105
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NOTES TO CHAPTER IV 107 Kasi-Kosala
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NOTES TO CHAPTER IV 109 12. In addi
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5.1] MODE OF LIVING 111 only in the
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5. 1J ANTHROPOMETRY of such measure
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5.2] EFFECT OF THE PLOUGH 115 into
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5.2] NEED FOR CRITICAL EDITIONS 117
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5.3] RISE OF NEW TRIBES 119 in the
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5.3] CATTLE, CROPS, TRADE 121 be an
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5.4] ARYAN LAND-CLEARING 123 design
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5.5] UTOPIAN KURUS ; IKSVAKUS 125 w
Page 153 and 154: 5.5] BHRGU MYTHS 127 Just why he ha
Page 155 and 156: 5.6] DIFFUSION OF NAGA CULTURE 129
Page 157 and 158: 5.6] TOTEMIC SURVIVALS 131 Totemism
Page 159 and 160: 5.7J POOR PRIEST-CLASS 133 Both got
Page 161 and 162: 5.8J MIXED BRAHMINS 135 6.4.16 for
Page 163 and 164: 5.8] SESAMUM OIL 137 The word taila
Page 165 and 166: 5.8J NEW FORMS OF PROPERTY 139 now
Page 167 and 168: 5.9] CHANGES IN SOCIAL STRUCTURE 14
Page 169 and 170: NOTES TO CHAPTER V 143 Satyakama Ja
Page 171 and 172: 6.1] THE PUNJAB 145 destruction of
Page 173 and 174: 6.1J DEBT AND USURY 147 down to Kau
Page 175 and 176: 6.2] CONTEMPORARY GANGETIC TRIBES 1
Page 177 and 178: 6.2] TRIBAL JANAPADAS 151 Pavarika,
Page 179 and 180: 6.3J BASIS OF ABSOLUTE MONARCHT 153
Page 181 and 182: 6.3J MAGADHAN CONTROL OF METALS 155
Page 183 and 184: 157 Fig. 20. Later Kosalan coinage
Page 185 and 186: 6.$J THE FALL OF KOSALA 159 brahmin
Page 187 and 188: 6.4J DESTRUCTION OF THE LICCHAVIS 1
Page 189 and 190: 6.5] CONTEMPORARY MAGADHAN SECTS 16
Page 191 and 192: 6.6J; NEW DOCTRINES 165 committed i
Page 193 and 194: 6.6} PROPERTY AND RELIGION 167 upon
Page 195 and 196: 6.6] CASTE 169 bearing the message
Page 197 and 198: 6.7J THE GREAT NEGATION ; TAXILA 17
Page 199 and 200: 6.7J APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 173
Page 201 and 202: 6.7J SYSTEM OF PUNCH-MARKS 175 Thou
Page 203: NANDAS 177 the humped bull ) may be
Page 207 and 208: 6.7J RUIN OF TAXILA 181 They also s
Page 209 and 210: 6.7] INFORMATION FROM HOARDS 183 So
Page 211 and 212: CHAPTER VII THE FORMATION OF A VILL
Page 213 and 214: MAURYAN CONQUESTS 187 manifestation
Page 215 and 216: 7.2] ALEXANDER AT TAXILA 189 Fig. 3
Page 217 and 218: 7.2] INDIAN MILITARY TACTICS 191 Th
Page 219 and 220: 7.2ij MEGASTHENES ON MAGADHAN SOCIE
Page 221 and 222: AUTONOMOUS JANAPADAS 195 anywhere i
Page 223 and 224: 7.3J ASOKAN MONUMENTS 197 ; only a
Page 225 and 226: 7.3J KINSHIP ; TRACK ROUTES 199 kin
Page 227 and 228: ECONOMIC STRAIN 201 be it would hav
Page 229 and 230: 7.3] ATTACHMENT TO BUDDHISM 203 bes
Page 231 and 232: 7.3] INFLUENCE UPON RELIGION 205 Th
Page 233 and 234: 7.3J NEW IDEAL OF KINGSHIP 207 admi
Page 235 and 236: 7:4] THE LANGUAGE OF ASOKAN EDICTS
Page 237 and 238: 7.4] SUPPORT FOR EARLIER DATE 211 T
Page 239 and 240: 7.4] TECHNIQUE OF DISRUPTING TRIBES
Page 241 and 242: 7.4] ARTHASASTRA REALISM 215 occupa
Page 243 and 244: 7.5J STATE CONTROL 217 regulations,
Page 245 and 246: 7.5] REGISTRATION OF RESOURCES 219
Page 247 and 248: 7.5] SCALES OF PAYMENT; LABOUR SERV
Page 249 and 250: 7.6] DEPRECIATION OF CURRENCY 223 p
Page 251 and 252: 7..6J APPORTIONMENT OF LAND 225 feu
Page 253 and 254: 227 of servitude (as were other bon
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7.7] FORMATION OF CROWN VILLAGES 22
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231 Here the rastra private village
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234 herdsmen-under observation, pro
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236 READJUSTMENT TO THE NEW LIFE [7
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CHAPTER VIII INTERLUDE OF TRADE AND
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242 KAMASUTRA OF VATSYAYANA [8.1 im
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244 TRADE AND PILGRIMAGE [8.1 a spl
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246 GREEK INVADERS [8.1 Now, with n
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248 NEW TRIBES AND KINGDOMS [8.1 th
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250 NEED FOR A CALENDAR [8.2 commen
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252 MANUSMRTI THEORY OF THE STATE [
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254 DIFFERENTIAL EXPLOITATION [8.3
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256 ABSENCE OF UNIFORM LAWS [8.3 si
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258 GROWTH OF RUSTICITY [8.4 cannot
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260 NEW PERSONAL GODS [8.4- Bhagabh
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262 THE SOUTHERN TRACK ROUTE [8.5 a
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264 MOTHER GODDESSES OF UNIQUE NAME
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266 BUDDHIST CAVE-COMPLEXES [8.5 bu
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268 WEALTH OF CAVE FOUNDATIONS [8.5
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270 TYPES OF DONORS [8.6 settlement
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272 POWER OF GUILDS [8.6 half a doz
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274 COCONUTS AND COMMODITY PRODUTTI
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276 SATAVAHANA TRADE [8.6 and lead;
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278 ANOMALOUS DEVELOPMENT OF SANSKR
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280 PRIEST AND PRINCE [S.7 The thre
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282 GRAMMARIANS ; IDEALISM ; FLORID
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284 TECHNICAL LITERATURE [8.7 liter
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286 RELATION TO FEUDALISM [8.8 pros
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288 ‘ LITTLE CLAY CART ‘ [8.8 f
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290 KARAGA FESTIVAL [ 8 . & immutab
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292 INFLUENCE UPON THE VERNACULARS
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294 NOTES TO CHAPTER VIII original
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296 THE POLICE GULMA [9.1 intermedi
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298 UPPER INDIA UNDER THE GUPTAS [9
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300 TAXES AND TRIBUTES [9.1 This de
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302 WATERWORKS BHOJA [9.1 trade, po
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304 RUIN OF PATNA [9.2 of village e
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306 WARS OF RELIGION [9.2 The chari
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308 CHINESE ACCOUNTS OF INDIA [9.3
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310 CHANGES IN FEUDAL STRUCTURE [9.
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312 TRIBAL ALLIANCES OF THE, GUPTAS
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314 CASTE AND CLASS ; BUDDHISM [9.4
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316 ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES [9.4 c
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318 FROM TRIBE TO CASTE (9,4 fighti
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320 INDIVIDUAL HOLDINGS [9.5 commit
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322 TRANSFER OF STATE RIGHTS 19.5 t
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324 MODEL FOR FEUDAL PROPERTY [9.6
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326 RISE OF MAYtJRASARMAN [9.6 Mayu
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328 VILLAGE COMMUNITY IN GOA [9.6 n
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330 LOCAL CONDITIONS IN GOA [9.6 hi
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332 SHARING OF THE PROFIT [9.6 They
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334 AN IMPRESSIVE MONUMENT [9.7 tho
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336 THE GOSTHl J PROBLEMS OF TECHNI
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338 CONTEMPORARY SURVIVALS [9.7 giv
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340 ARTISANS IN AMARAKO^A [9.7 like
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342 NOTES TO CHAPTER IX descriptive
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344 NOTES TO CHAPTER IX which was t
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Fig. 41. Wet field (paddy-rice) cul
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Fig. 43. Kitchen-gardening and tool
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Fig. 45. Village Oil Press. The art
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Fig. 47. This is not one of the ess
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354 CONTRAST WITH EUROPEAN FEUDALIS
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356 STEADY IMPORT OF HORSES [ 10.1
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358 INEVITABILITY OF INVASION [10.1
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360 SUPERIORITY OF FOREIGN SHIPPING
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362 NECESSITY FOR TRADING BARONS [1
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364 DEVELOPMENT OF KASMIR 10.2 They
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366 ECONOMICS OF ICOCLASM [10.2 in
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368 STRUCTURE OF VIJAYNAGAR EMPIRE
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370 RAJPUT HIERARCHY ; THE MARKET [
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372 SANSKRIT IN THE XIITH CENTURY [
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374 ALAUDDIN’S MEASURES [10.4 liv
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376 PRICE CONTROL AT THE CENTRE [10
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378 TAXES, WATER-WORKS, SLAVERY [10
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380 SLAVERY IN THE XIXTH CENTURY [1
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382 DEVELOPMENT OF FEUDAL TENURE [1
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384 TAX-COLLECTION AND ARMED FORCES
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386 EPHEMERAL CITIES [ 10.5 The eph
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388 LABOURING CLASS POVERTY [10.5 t
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390 ECONOMIC BASES OF RELIGIOUS TEN
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392 A BOURGEOIS VIEW [10.6 the very
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394 TRADING BARONS [10.6 estimated
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396 PRE-CONDITIONS FOR BOURGEOIS DE
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398 PAYMENT OF SUPPLIES [10.7 aband
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400 CRACKS IN THE MILITARY SYSTEM [
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402 CHEAPER TAX-COLLECTION [10.7 su
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404 NOTES TO CHAPTER X 2. The quota
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