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NOTES to CHAPTER ix 343 governors at Junagatfh (Girnftr) is striking, though their sons often bear Indian names. Soon after Skandagupta, the Maitraka dynasty of Valabhi was founded by one Bhatarka with his tribe or clan to support him; the names of both chieftain and his tribe are Sankritized and probably foreign. Malada (son of Bandhumati and brother of Nirmala) who endowed the Buddhist monastic university at Nalanda under Baladitya, says (EL 20.37-46) that one Tikina, * lord of the north, minister, and lord of the passes’ under Yasovarman was his father. The king may be Yasovarman of Kanauj, not Yasodharman of Malwa over a century earlier as the editor wants it. It is admitted that tikina = tegin is a Turki title meaning chief, noble, or prince. The Hunas that had to be defeated more than once by the Guptas, whose empire they shook to its foundations, were absorbed without “trace, though Sanskrit poetry preserves the memory of the highly admired pale golden complexion of Hun and Saka women — fitting addition to the golden age. Even with the Muslims and the British, trade preceded military activity, which was undertaken only when it promised more gain at relatively low cost. 4. Har§a’s camp, and the army on the march are described vividly by Bana, in Har. The court-poet seems never to have visited the original capital Thanesar, nor for that matter Kanauj. He describes the former region as supplied with wild coconut trees, though the tree does not grow much further north than the poet’s home, which was near the south bank of the Ganges, above Patna. He must have taken it for granted as a symbol of any fertile land. ‘ 5. Here, the bharatavakya of the Mudraraksasa and the fragmentary references from the lost drama Devl-candragupta may be taken as possible exceptions. 6. Perhaps the most striking such genealogies are of the Nalas (DKA. 52), who were more likely to have been ni$ada forest savages than the handy ni$adhas into which they were turned, in order to make Nala’s father their ancestor. The Panduvamsl kings (Fleet 81) are almost certainly of the same line as the tribal Pandos found in the central Indian wilderness to this day (Census of India, 1931, pt. 3). The Palas began their glorious, highly cultured dynasty with the~ illegitimate offspring of a Naga, according to Taranatha. The Bhaumas are simply “autochthonous.” 7. For the Licchavis, Sylvain Levi, Le Nepal, etude historique d’un royaume Hindou (Paris 1905-8, 3 vol., 2-3 in the Annales du Musee Guimet) ; particularly 2.89-90, 3.64 (first Licchavi inscription, in the late 6th or early seventh century) 3.79, &c.; Mallas, 3.69, 2.212, &c. Even in the 7th century A. D., the Tibetan king Srong-tsan Gam-po also claimed Licchavi origin. Fantastic theories that the Buddha was ‘a sturdy Tibetan ‘ were consequently formed by Vincent Smith and others out of whole cloth. 8. For epigraphic records of the hiranyagarbha rebirth ceremony see D. C. Sircar, Successors of the Saiavahanas. The rites are described in Matsya-purana 275 (1-23). The tulapurusa which precedes it became much commoner. The royal personage was weighed against gold or silver,
344 NOTES TO CHAPTER IX which was then distributed to brahmins. Such gifts had not the advantage of rebirth with a new caste. 9. R. E. Enthoven : Tribes and castes of Bombay (3 vol., 1920), sub G3va Ja 1.362; also a devak (sept) of the Gablts, 1.349, and some others. 10. G. M. Moraes : The Kadamba-kula (Bombay 1931) ; also Irons. Vth Ind. Hist. Con. 1941.164-74; Festschrift R. K. Mukherjee (Bhdrata kaumudi, Allahabad 1945) 441-475. D. C. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas, 225-254. 11. Archaeological Survey, Mysore State; Annual Report 1929, p. 50. The inscription, brief as it is, is still not clear, except that the author raided extensively. 12. For the village settlement in Goa, see my paper : The village community in the ‘Old Conquests’ of Goa (J. Uni. Bombay, 15, 1947, 63-78). Of great use were G. Gerson da Cunha’s edition of the Sahyadri-khanda (Bombay 1877), and his study on The Konkani language and literature (Bombay 1881). However, the main field work was my own, as I was born in Goa, and talked with enough of the older people to be able to restore the older system from its strong remnants. The documentation comes from Filippe N6ry Xavier’s (Portuguese) Bosquejo histo-rico das comunidades das aldeas dos concelhos llhas, Salcete e Bardez (2nd ed. Bastora, 3 vol. 1903-07) : the same author’s Gabincto literario das*fontainhas was not available. 13. For these village craftsmen see Molesworth’s Mardthi-English dictionary. T. N. Atre’s Gamva-gd4d (in Marathi, Karjat-AmaJner, 1915) gives the details of the system from the querulous point of view of the new bourgeoisie, for whom it had long outlived its usefulness. ^14. This is done in my note ; The working class in the Amarakosa (JOR. 24, 1955, 57-69) : the hierarchical principles in the first two sections of the kosa has apparently escaped notice. The words tunna-vdya and saucika mean some sort of needle-worker in 2.10.6. The meaning now accepted is “ tailor “, but embroiderers would be likelier in view of Hiuen Tsang’s comment that cut and stitched clothes were not in fashion over most of the country.
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AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF IND
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PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION THIS b
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PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION xiii a
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PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION xv Rgv
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ABBREVIATIONS AND BIBLIOGRAPHY AB A
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xxi ABBREVIATIONS AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
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ABBREVIATIONS AND BIBLIOGRAPHY I-ts
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ABBREVIATIONS AND BIBLIOGRAPHY t xx
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CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE No chronology
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XXIX CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE crowns a
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Ixiv COMMENTARY TO ILLUSTRATIONS 6.
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COMMENTARY TO ILLUSTRATIONS number
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Ixviii COMMENTARY TO ILLUSTRATIONS
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CHAPTER I SCOPE AND METHODS 1.1. Sp
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1.1J GANGEYADEVA ‘AND BENGAL 3 (w
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1.1] LEGENDS NOT HISTORY 5 still cu
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1.2] ARCHAEOLOGY AND ETHNOGRAPHY 7
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1.3J THE MATERIALIST APPROACH 9 kno
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1.3] VILLAGE PRODUCTION 11 “These
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1.3] FUNDAMENTAL QUESTIONS 13 were
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NOTES TO CHAPTER I 15 3. F. E. Parg
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CHAPTER II THE HERITAGE OF PRE- CLA
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2.1] EARLY TOOLS AND MATERIALS 19 T
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2.2] TRIBAL STRUCTURE 21 built, lik
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2.2] RITUAL AND SACRIFICE 23 But sl
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2.2] POWER OF GROUP LIFE 25 The bas
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2.3] CASTES FROM TRIBES 27 tribal p
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2.3] PARDHI CUSTOMS 29 clans are no
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2.3] VAIDUS AND VADDARS 31 The buri
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2.3] THE PROCESS OF ABSORPTION 33 I
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2.4] VETALA AND HANUMAN 35 converte
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2.4] 37 STONE MICROLITHS which has
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2.4] THE PASTORAL GODS 39 that beyo
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2.5] TREE CULTS 41 (a demon), Kalub
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2.5] SYNCRETISM IN CULTS 43 is marr
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2.5] ANCIENT SURVIVALS 45 has been
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SURVIVAL OF PRIMITIVE IMPLEMENTS 47
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2.6J ARCHAIC POTTERY TECHNIQUE 49 m
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NOTES TO CHAPTER II 51 castes many
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CHAPTER III CIVILIZATION AND BARBAR
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3.1] INCORRECT AND CORRECT DEDUCTIO
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3.2] IMPORTANCE OF RIPARIAN DESERTS
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3,2] TRADE WITH BABYLON 59 similari
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3.2] NAVIGATION, INTERNAL TRADE 61
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3.3] FORCE OR RELIGION? 63 containi
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3.3] DOMINANCE OF RELIGION 65 a cul
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3.4] PROBLEM OF FOOT PRODUCTION 67
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3.4] METHODS OF CULTIVATION 69 Indi
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3.4] FLOOD IRRIGATION 71 but does n
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3.4) HARAPPA IN THE RGVEDA 73 Harap
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3.4] DESTRUCTION OF THE DAMS 75 Thi
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NOTES TO CHAPTER III 77 R. E. M. Wh
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NOTES TO CHAPTER III 79 The very ac
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4.1J ARYANS IN HISTORY 81 Aryans in
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4. 1J TWO ARYAN WAVES 83 The commun
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4.1J DEMOLITION OF BARRIERS 85 diff
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4.2] OLD ARYAN GODS 87 The novice w
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4.2] CONTINUED FOREIGN CONTACTS 89
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4.3] MYTH AND HISTORY 91 The second
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4.3] HUMAN AND DEMONIC DASAS 93 ult
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4.3J PURUS, BHRGUS, TRTSUS 95 in RV
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4.4] THE FORMATION OF THE FIRST CAS
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4.4] FOUR CLASS-CASTES 99 intermarr
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4.5] ORIGINS OF BRAHMINISM 101 It h
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4.5] NEED FOR AN URBAN BACKGROUND 1
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4.5] BRAHMIN GOTRAS FROM TRIBES 105
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NOTES TO CHAPTER IV 107 Kasi-Kosala
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NOTES TO CHAPTER IV 109 12. In addi
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5.1] MODE OF LIVING 111 only in the
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5. 1J ANTHROPOMETRY of such measure
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5.2] EFFECT OF THE PLOUGH 115 into
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5.2] NEED FOR CRITICAL EDITIONS 117
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5.3] RISE OF NEW TRIBES 119 in the
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5.3] CATTLE, CROPS, TRADE 121 be an
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5.4] ARYAN LAND-CLEARING 123 design
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5.5] UTOPIAN KURUS ; IKSVAKUS 125 w
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5.5] BHRGU MYTHS 127 Just why he ha
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5.6] DIFFUSION OF NAGA CULTURE 129
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5.6] TOTEMIC SURVIVALS 131 Totemism
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5.7J POOR PRIEST-CLASS 133 Both got
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5.8J MIXED BRAHMINS 135 6.4.16 for
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5.8] SESAMUM OIL 137 The word taila
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5.8J NEW FORMS OF PROPERTY 139 now
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5.9] CHANGES IN SOCIAL STRUCTURE 14
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NOTES TO CHAPTER V 143 Satyakama Ja
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6.1] THE PUNJAB 145 destruction of
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6.1J DEBT AND USURY 147 down to Kau
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6.2] CONTEMPORARY GANGETIC TRIBES 1
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6.2] TRIBAL JANAPADAS 151 Pavarika,
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6.3J BASIS OF ABSOLUTE MONARCHT 153
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6.3J MAGADHAN CONTROL OF METALS 155
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157 Fig. 20. Later Kosalan coinage
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6.$J THE FALL OF KOSALA 159 brahmin
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6.4J DESTRUCTION OF THE LICCHAVIS 1
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6.5] CONTEMPORARY MAGADHAN SECTS 16
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6.6J; NEW DOCTRINES 165 committed i
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6.6} PROPERTY AND RELIGION 167 upon
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6.6] CASTE 169 bearing the message
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6.7J THE GREAT NEGATION ; TAXILA 17
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6.7J APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 173
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6.7J SYSTEM OF PUNCH-MARKS 175 Thou
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NANDAS 177 the humped bull ) may be
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ROYAL MARKS ON COINS 179 Fig. 26. W
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6.7J RUIN OF TAXILA 181 They also s
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6.7] INFORMATION FROM HOARDS 183 So
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CHAPTER VII THE FORMATION OF A VILL
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MAURYAN CONQUESTS 187 manifestation
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7.2] ALEXANDER AT TAXILA 189 Fig. 3
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7.2] INDIAN MILITARY TACTICS 191 Th
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7.2ij MEGASTHENES ON MAGADHAN SOCIE
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AUTONOMOUS JANAPADAS 195 anywhere i
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7.3J ASOKAN MONUMENTS 197 ; only a
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7.3J KINSHIP ; TRACK ROUTES 199 kin
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ECONOMIC STRAIN 201 be it would hav
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7.3] ATTACHMENT TO BUDDHISM 203 bes
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7.3] INFLUENCE UPON RELIGION 205 Th
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7.3J NEW IDEAL OF KINGSHIP 207 admi
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7:4] THE LANGUAGE OF ASOKAN EDICTS
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7.4] SUPPORT FOR EARLIER DATE 211 T
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7.4] TECHNIQUE OF DISRUPTING TRIBES
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7.4] ARTHASASTRA REALISM 215 occupa
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7.5J STATE CONTROL 217 regulations,
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7.5] REGISTRATION OF RESOURCES 219
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7.5] SCALES OF PAYMENT; LABOUR SERV
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7.6] DEPRECIATION OF CURRENCY 223 p
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7..6J APPORTIONMENT OF LAND 225 feu
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227 of servitude (as were other bon
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7.7] FORMATION OF CROWN VILLAGES 22
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231 Here the rastra private village
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234 herdsmen-under observation, pro
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236 READJUSTMENT TO THE NEW LIFE [7
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CHAPTER VIII INTERLUDE OF TRADE AND
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242 KAMASUTRA OF VATSYAYANA [8.1 im
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244 TRADE AND PILGRIMAGE [8.1 a spl
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246 GREEK INVADERS [8.1 Now, with n
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248 NEW TRIBES AND KINGDOMS [8.1 th
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250 NEED FOR A CALENDAR [8.2 commen
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252 MANUSMRTI THEORY OF THE STATE [
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254 DIFFERENTIAL EXPLOITATION [8.3
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256 ABSENCE OF UNIFORM LAWS [8.3 si
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258 GROWTH OF RUSTICITY [8.4 cannot
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260 NEW PERSONAL GODS [8.4- Bhagabh
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262 THE SOUTHERN TRACK ROUTE [8.5 a
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264 MOTHER GODDESSES OF UNIQUE NAME
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266 BUDDHIST CAVE-COMPLEXES [8.5 bu
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268 WEALTH OF CAVE FOUNDATIONS [8.5
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270 TYPES OF DONORS [8.6 settlement
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272 POWER OF GUILDS [8.6 half a doz
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274 COCONUTS AND COMMODITY PRODUTTI
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276 SATAVAHANA TRADE [8.6 and lead;
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278 ANOMALOUS DEVELOPMENT OF SANSKR
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280 PRIEST AND PRINCE [S.7 The thre
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282 GRAMMARIANS ; IDEALISM ; FLORID
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284 TECHNICAL LITERATURE [8.7 liter
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286 RELATION TO FEUDALISM [8.8 pros
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288 ‘ LITTLE CLAY CART ‘ [8.8 f
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290 KARAGA FESTIVAL [ 8 . & immutab
Page 315 and 316: 292 INFLUENCE UPON THE VERNACULARS
Page 317 and 318: 294 NOTES TO CHAPTER VIII original
Page 319 and 320: 296 THE POLICE GULMA [9.1 intermedi
Page 321 and 322: 298 UPPER INDIA UNDER THE GUPTAS [9
Page 323 and 324: 300 TAXES AND TRIBUTES [9.1 This de
Page 325 and 326: 302 WATERWORKS BHOJA [9.1 trade, po
Page 327 and 328: 304 RUIN OF PATNA [9.2 of village e
Page 329 and 330: 306 WARS OF RELIGION [9.2 The chari
Page 331 and 332: 308 CHINESE ACCOUNTS OF INDIA [9.3
Page 333 and 334: 310 CHANGES IN FEUDAL STRUCTURE [9.
Page 335 and 336: 312 TRIBAL ALLIANCES OF THE, GUPTAS
Page 337 and 338: 314 CASTE AND CLASS ; BUDDHISM [9.4
Page 339 and 340: 316 ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES [9.4 c
Page 341 and 342: 318 FROM TRIBE TO CASTE (9,4 fighti
Page 343 and 344: 320 INDIVIDUAL HOLDINGS [9.5 commit
Page 345 and 346: 322 TRANSFER OF STATE RIGHTS 19.5 t
Page 347 and 348: 324 MODEL FOR FEUDAL PROPERTY [9.6
Page 349 and 350: 326 RISE OF MAYtJRASARMAN [9.6 Mayu
Page 351 and 352: 328 VILLAGE COMMUNITY IN GOA [9.6 n
Page 353 and 354: 330 LOCAL CONDITIONS IN GOA [9.6 hi
Page 355 and 356: 332 SHARING OF THE PROFIT [9.6 They
Page 357 and 358: 334 AN IMPRESSIVE MONUMENT [9.7 tho
Page 359 and 360: 336 THE GOSTHl J PROBLEMS OF TECHNI
Page 361 and 362: 338 CONTEMPORARY SURVIVALS [9.7 giv
Page 363 and 364: 340 ARTISANS IN AMARAKO^A [9.7 like
Page 365: 342 NOTES TO CHAPTER IX descriptive
Page 369 and 370: Fig. 41. Wet field (paddy-rice) cul
Page 371 and 372: Fig. 43. Kitchen-gardening and tool
Page 373 and 374: Fig. 45. Village Oil Press. The art
Page 375 and 376: Fig. 47. This is not one of the ess
Page 377 and 378: 354 CONTRAST WITH EUROPEAN FEUDALIS
Page 379 and 380: 356 STEADY IMPORT OF HORSES [ 10.1
Page 381 and 382: 358 INEVITABILITY OF INVASION [10.1
Page 383 and 384: 360 SUPERIORITY OF FOREIGN SHIPPING
Page 385 and 386: 362 NECESSITY FOR TRADING BARONS [1
Page 387 and 388: 364 DEVELOPMENT OF KASMIR 10.2 They
Page 389 and 390: 366 ECONOMICS OF ICOCLASM [10.2 in
Page 391 and 392: 368 STRUCTURE OF VIJAYNAGAR EMPIRE
Page 393 and 394: 370 RAJPUT HIERARCHY ; THE MARKET [
Page 395 and 396: 372 SANSKRIT IN THE XIITH CENTURY [
Page 397 and 398: 374 ALAUDDIN’S MEASURES [10.4 liv
Page 399 and 400: 376 PRICE CONTROL AT THE CENTRE [10
Page 401 and 402: 378 TAXES, WATER-WORKS, SLAVERY [10
Page 403 and 404: 380 SLAVERY IN THE XIXTH CENTURY [1
Page 405 and 406: 382 DEVELOPMENT OF FEUDAL TENURE [1
Page 407 and 408: 384 TAX-COLLECTION AND ARMED FORCES
Page 409 and 410: 386 EPHEMERAL CITIES [ 10.5 The eph
Page 411 and 412: 388 LABOURING CLASS POVERTY [10.5 t
Page 413 and 414: 390 ECONOMIC BASES OF RELIGIOUS TEN
Page 415 and 416: 392 A BOURGEOIS VIEW [10.6 the very
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394 TRADING BARONS [10.6 estimated
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396 PRE-CONDITIONS FOR BOURGEOIS DE
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398 PAYMENT OF SUPPLIES [10.7 aband
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400 CRACKS IN THE MILITARY SYSTEM [
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402 CHEAPER TAX-COLLECTION [10.7 su
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404 NOTES TO CHAPTER X 2. The quota
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