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A-Z 619 particular needs of the learners, and the growth of the use of English in science, technology, and business has led to both research into the nature of learners’ needs (needs analysis) and the preparation of teaching materials to meet those needs. In ESP, as in ELT in general, there have been considerable changes in approach. Early courses, such as Herbert’s The Structure of Technical English (1965) and Ewer and Latorre’s Course in Basic Scientific English (1969), adopted a grammatical approach concentrating largely on those structures, such as the Present Simple—both active and passive—and the Present Perfect, that register analysis has shown to be important in scientific and technical English. The functional/notional syllabus probably worked more effectively in ESP courses than in General English courses. Allen and Widdowson’s English in Focus series (1974 onwards), based largely on functions, and, more particularly, Bates and Dudley-Evans’ Nucleus series (1976), based on scientific notions or concepts, have both been influential courses. Subsequent courses, e.g Reading and Thinking in English edited by Moore and Widdowson (1980) and Skills for Learning which developed from a project at the University of Malaya directed by Sinclair (Sinclair, 1980), have concentrated on particular study skills, particularly reading. Task-based approaches have also been very appropriate for ESP work; a course called Interface, written by Hutchinson and Waters (1984) and developed originally for a group of technical students preparing to study in Britain, is a good example of such an approach. It has become common to make a distinction between two main branches of ESP: English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for Occupational Purposes (EOP). In the United States, English for Occupational Purposes is usually referred to as English for Vocational Purposes (EVP). EAP began as the dominant branch, but with the increased interest in Business English, EOP has become increasingly important. Most EOP courses, except for early courses, have been strongly influenced by taskbased syllabuses. The results of genre analysis (see GENRE ANALYSIS) are likely to have an increasing influence on both branches of ESP. The relationship between ELT and linguistics or applied linguistics has always been interesting. At certain times, research carried out by either descriptive or applied linguists has had a strong influence on ELT materials and methodology. At other times, pioneering work done in the classroom has been ahead of applied linguistics, which has subsequently provided a theoretical framework to explain what has already been discovered in the classroom. The pattern seems to be that most new developments in ELT have been prompted by new work in linguistics or applied linguistics; the work in ELT then expands in a number of directions and leads to discoveries which feed back into applied linguistics. Howatt (1984) describes how the Reform Movement of the late nineteenth century was closely associated with the development of phonetics and the formation of associations such as the International Phonetics Association (see THE INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET). Similarly, the professionalization of ELT in the first half of the twentieth century begins with the work of Daniel Jones in phonetics (see PHONEMICS) but was developed by the more practically orientated work of Palmer, West, and Hornby. Their work in developing teaching materials and ideas for using those materials culminated in a number of books on teaching methodology published in the late 1950s and early 1960s, notably West’s Teaching English in Difficult
The linguistics encyclopedia 620 Circumstances (1960) and Billows’ Techniques of Language Teaching (1962). Abercrombie’s Problems and Principles (1956) was also influential. As noted earlier, Widdowson had a considerable influence on the emergence of the Communicative Approach to language teaching and he in turn drew on the tradition of relating language and social context that begins with Firth and continues with Halliday (see FUNCTIONALIST LINGUISTICS). But the various interpretations of a Communicative Approach in the actual classroom and discussion of the claimed successes of these approaches have played an important part in the applied linguistics literature, both in journals such as English Language Teaching Journal (ELTJ) and books such as Johnson’s Communicative Syllabus Design and Methodology (1982). It is interesting to note that in the USA the influence of both descriptive and applied linguistics has been more direct. Howatt (1984) reports Fries as stating that the relationship should be hierarchical, with the descriptive linguist providing the description of the target language, the applied linguist selecting and grading the structures from this description and also providing a contrastive analysis of the source and target languages. The applied linguist then prepares the materials which the teacher uses in the classroom. It is perhaps noteworthy that the main American journal concerned with ELT, TESOL Quarterly has always published many more data-based empirical studies related to classroom methodology than the British ELTJ. It is likely that with the increased numbers of ELT teachers following postgraduate courses in applied linguistics, the gap between the two professions will diminish and that more systematic approaches to the development and validation of teaching materials and methodology will emerge. T.D.-E. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING Howatt, A.T.R. (1984), A History of English Language Teaching, Oxford, Oxford University Press. White, R. (1988), The ELT Curriculum, Oxford, Basil Blackwell. Widdowson, H.G. (1983), Learning Purpose and Language Use, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
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The LINGUISTICS ENCYCLOPEDIA
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Atlas of the World’s Languages Ch
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First published 1991 by Routledge 1
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Contents List of subjects x Preface
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British Sign Language (BSL): see Si
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Generative rhetoric: see Rhetoric G
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Morphophonology: see Morphology Mul
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Structuralist linguistics Stylistic
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According to some, language is lite
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The contributors Tsutomu Akamatsu s
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Champaign, USA. He contributed the
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Acknowledgements The great majority
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Acoustic phonetics Acoustic phoneti
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A-Z 3 amplitude of x, y, and z, res
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A-Z 5 Figure 6 (a) A line spectrum
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A-Z 7 the very front as well. The v
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A-Z 9 Figure 10 A formant chart sho
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A-Z 11 a spectrogram. A normal spec
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Animals and language Linguists’ i
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A-Z 15 colour of their underside wh
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A-Z 17 least in the field of animal
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A-Z 19 vocabulary of around 130 ter
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Aphasia Aphasia is the loss of norm
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A-Z 23 the following syndromes is f
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A-Z 25 CONVERSATIONAL ANALYSIS), ey
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Articulatory phonetics Articulatory
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A-Z 29 such a way that the egressiv
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A-Z 31 recognition is implied in ph
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A-Z 33 Use of the cardinal vowel sy
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A-Z 35 Consonants may also be class
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Artificial Intelligence ARTIFICIAL
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A-Z 39 natural language. Trying to
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A-Z 41 It was rapidly found that th
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A-Z 43 generate well-formed output
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A-Z 45 N-place relations can be rec
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A-Z 47 offered as a useful tool for
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A-Z 49 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READ
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A-Z 51 not only be universal, but w
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A-Z 53 While many Esperantists feel
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A-Z 55 And since a number of natura
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A-Z 57 the present discussion, but
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A-Z 59 This finding gave rise to on
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A-Z 61 tasks to be performed with t
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A-Z 63 Attempts to relate an acoust
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A-Z 65 traversed, and actions perfo
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A-Z 67 The system can be made to co
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A-Z 69 11 ASSEMBLE NOUN PHRASE SEND
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we have the more complex A-Z 71 and
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A-Z 73 required length of time, and
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A-Z 75 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READ
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A-Z 77 finding herself or himself i
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A-Z 79 after a period of mixing up
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A-Z 81 MIXING Bilinguals often enga
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A-Z 83 The analysis of the speech o
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A-Z 85 official language in so far
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A-Z 87 English bears little resembl
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The most important variables here i
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A-Z 91 d. I paid Harry five dollars
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Categorial grammar The term categor
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course, but also possibly containin
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A-Z 97 Corpora At its most general,
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A-Z 99 of English obviously have un
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A-Z 101 applications. Technical ava
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A-Z 103 investigated had been (for
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A-Z 105 being used experimentally i
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Creoles and pidgins GENERAL INTRODU
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A-Z 109 economically, and/or politi
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A-Z 111 Pidgins and creoles tend to
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A-Z 113 polygenesis (multiple origi
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A-Z 115 creolization process: (1) m
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A-Z 117 speakers to acquire the sta
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A-Z 119 To say that critical lingui
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A-Z 121 mode of materialization and
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Dialectology INTRODUCTION Dialectol
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A-Z 125 Yorkshire dialect / / would
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A-Z 127 commenced before this time
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A-Z 129 educational policies—thos
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A-Z 131 Ferguson’s words, ‘an a
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Science Research Council between Se
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period lesson topic A-Z 135 transac
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Exchange type Boundary Elicit Table
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A-Z 139 move occurs. Keenan and Sch
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without being heard as interruption
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A-Z 143 construction functions as a
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Distinctive features INTRODUCTION D
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A-Z 147 /d/, but which in final pos
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A-Z 149 Redundancy also applies in
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(palatalized v. non-palatalized) na
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Dyslexia The Greek term dys-lexia m
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A-Z 155 dyslexia lies in the normal
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A-Z 157 amnesia visualis verbalis,
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A-Z 159 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER REA
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A-Z 161 from the pen of linguists w
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A-Z 163 language, which will prompt
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With a basic idea of the morphology
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A-Z 167 In the early stages this wi
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etc. Each state through which he pa
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Formal logic and modal logic INTROD
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A-Z 173 The two descriptions of log
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A-Z 175 t f f f t f f t t f t t f f
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Someone is brave, can be paraphrase
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it follows that: There is a variety
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A-Z 181 Useful introductions to ten
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The interest of the theory lies in
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or false, and this is exploited in
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A-Z 187 As a first step, we can see
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A-Z 189 between moments ‘
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(Moravcsik, 1980, p. 11). It begins
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It was an Easter egg that Tomas gav
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A-Z 195 (i) It specifies time refer
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Functional phonology By functional
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A-Z 199 not only contrastively but
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A-Z 201 On the basis of this commut
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A-Z 203 phonologically valid in the
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Functional unification grammar Func
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A-Z 207 Unification refers to an op
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He likes (−) writing books He lik
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A-Z 211 sections of a functional un
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Functionalist linguistics Functiona
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A-Z 215 described half a century ag
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A-Z 217 By register is meant that c
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formulated in mathematical terms: I
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We can add more rules to the syntax
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A-Z 223 INTRODUCTION Generative pho
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A-Z 225 Cycle 2 [1 2] − Cycle 3 [
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A-Z 227 phonologists was that phono
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SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING Cho
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A-Z 231 the application of the fami
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A-Z 233 encoded into syntactic stru
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A-Z 235 programme of attempting to
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A-Z 237 called a genre. In practice
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(iii) justifying the research The o
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A-Z 241 comprehension difficulties
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Glossematics INTRODUCTION Glossemat
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A-Z 245 basis of language typology.
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A-Z 247 an expression form and a co
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second, and the second over the thi
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A-Z 251 dimensional array, /p t k/
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A-Z 253 Historical linguistics INTR
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A-Z 255 SANSKRIT The first known re
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A-Z 257 became the first law in lin
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A-Z 259 Sanskrit çata Germanic hun
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A-Z 261 linguist attempts to classi
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PHONOLOGICAL CHANGE REGULARITY OF S
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A-Z 265 The treatment of [a] in the
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The loss of a word-medial vowel, or
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A phoneme may also split into multi
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An upward pressure was also exerted
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A-Z 273 DIFFUSION OF LANGUAGE CHANG
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A-Z 275 Singular Plural Nominative
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1 cantō chant(e) 2 cantas chantes
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A-Z 279 Morphological differentiati
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A-Z 281 English Latin dilapidated l
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A-Z 283 kind of reconditioning: Lat
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A-Z 285 [k] in both cases before th
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[ ] noche [ ] ocho [ ] dicho ‘nig
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A-Z 289 languages, their migratory
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A-Z 291 Language families indigenou
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A-Z 293 (Alaska, western Canada and
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A-Z 295 Alternatively, parentheses
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A-Z 297 1971), presented a great ad
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A-Z 299 It is sometimes assumed tha
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A-Z 301 hoc method must be used by
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A-Z 303 SUGGESTION FOR FURTHER READ
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A-Z 305 knowledge might limit the n
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A-Z 307 (b) Much shrapnel did not h
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pronominalization transformation th
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Intonation Intonation is the term c
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A-Z 313 that have been postulated t
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entity; it is rather one of the mea
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A-Z 317 Within each of the options,
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Kinesics Kinesics is the technical
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A-Z 321 gestures which realise inte
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A-Z 323 as scientifically valid. En
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A-Z 325 Performance factors include
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A-Z 327 is wider in relation to its
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Pivotclass word Table 1 A pivot gra
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A-Z 331 Braine (1976) argues that c
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A-Z 333 years old, and she showed t
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stage 3: stage 4: A-Z 335 Use of do
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A-Z 337 Halliday’s phase I, the f
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Language and education There is no
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A-Z 341 Such a view invites change
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A-Z 343 the children later on; in s
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Language and gender In this entry,
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A-Z 347 independent dimensions, the
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A-Z 349 for the study of Latin. The
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Language pathology and neurolinguis
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A-Z 353 integrated system of lingui
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A-Z 355 If we now pass quickly over
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A-Z 357 cannot be expressed in spee
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A-Z 359 studies where there has bee
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A-Z 361 each informant. The resulti
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A-Z 363 focus has been on synchroni
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A-Z 367 chúng tôi bằt đầu l
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A-Z 369 (1966b) universals (see LAN
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A-Z 371 Another powerful demonstrat
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Language universals INTRODUCTION Th
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A-Z 375 grammatical analysis, but i
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7 If, in a language with dominant S
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A-Z 379 42 All languages have prono
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A-Z 381 example, it is known that i
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A-Z 383 In attributing psychologica
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A-Z 385 principle of direct syntact
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Figure 1 A-Z 387 that a girl is the
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should be assigned elsewhere. Each
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Figure 3 A-Z 391 dicates, as presen
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‘machine x’ ‘shore’ bank/'b
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A-Z 395 a space between the parts o
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A-Z 397 2 Information of the same t
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one-one lexical mapping; the second
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Lexis and lexicology INTRODUCTION T
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A-Z 403 RELATIONS BETWEEN ITEMS Fie
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A-Z 405 with the conceptual or idea
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A-Z 407 Sinclair (1966) addressed s
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A-Z 409 LEXIS AND DISCOURSE ANALYSI
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1 Certainty / w/: he comes, 2 Rumou
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A-Z 413 people think and about what
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Metaphor Eco (1984, p. 87) insists
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A-Z 417 comparison view, according
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A-Z 419 Presumably, a child learns
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A-Z 421 expressions which refer to
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In theories where the word is an im
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A-Z 425 we talk of the phoneme /l/
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A-Z 427 INFLECTION Bloomfield (1933
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A-Z 429 COMPOSITION (COMPOUNDING) M
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A-Z 431 MORPHOPHONOLOGY (OR MORPHON
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A-Z 433 WP avoids the morphophonolo
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A-Z 437 languages, but only a small
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A-Z 439 vegetative functions as res
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A-Z 441 You can easily perform the
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Philosophy of language INTRODUCTION
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A-Z 445 tree and shrub at his finge
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A-Z 447 which is handy, since we ca
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whole sentence is its truth value,
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A-Z 451 however, conceptually compl
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A-Z 453 Such proposals are open to
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A-Z 455 their own utterances a good
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Phonemics Phonemics is the study of
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A-Z 459 word-initial position. Alth
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A-Z 461 the axiomatic principle, be
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A-Z 463 between two phonemes, and t
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Port-Royal grammar THE EDITIONS OF
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A-Z 467 succession ‘nouns, substa
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A-Z 469 conceive, but nearly always
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A-Z 471 and death are within the po
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A-Z 473 (Post-)Bloomfieldian Americ
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A-Z 475 Although the correspondence
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A-Z 477 OR Natural-language users o
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More specifically: A-Z 479 1 Avoid
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‘Maximize (other things being equ
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A-Z 483 expense of syntagmatic rela
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Given a few Turkish words as exampl
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A-Z 487 Psycholinguistics is a disc
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A-Z 489 discourse record, an intern
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1 Content words tend to exchange wi
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A-Z 493 other people’s overt spee
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A-Z 495 In logogen theory, each ent
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(b) The horse raced past the barn f
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(8) The painting pleased John and t
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A-Z 501 As it takes longer to read
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A-Z 505 A theory of linguistic stru
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A-Z 507 2 The onset of language cor
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A-Z 509 Chomsky, N. (1966), Cartesi
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A-Z 511 conclusions. A five-part sp
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A-Z 513 Payne (1969) for a number o
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A-Z 515 CONTRASTIVE RHETORIC The di
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A-Z 517 be handled in a consistent
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A-Z 519 problem, Halliday allows fo
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A-Z 521 some elements of group stru
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therefore, fall under semiotics, th
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True binary antonyms such as the on
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These, and the gradable binary anto
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x is a kind of y A-Z 529 There is a
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(15) This is my husband (16) This i
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could, in principle, be given any n
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Figure 1 A-Z 535 analysis as a theo
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A-Z 537 The stripped bark of the tr
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Set theory SETS Set theory is a bra
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The power set of a set S is a set w
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A-Z 543 to its range or co-domain:
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Sign language INTRODUCTION By sign
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similar schools in the 1850s reache
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among the first acquired by deaf ch
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Susceptative/friquentative ‘easil
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A-Z 553 carelessness, lack of atten
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A-Z 555 The signing space forms an
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A-Z 557 Kyle, J.G. and Woll, B. (19
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A-Z 561 If any of these criteria is
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A-Z 563 numerous, Austin hoped that
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A-Z 565 years in Papua New Guinea,
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A-Z 567 warn, greet and congratulat
Page 598 and 599: Step 7: Step 8: Step 9: Step 10: to
Page 600 and 601: Speech therapy DEFINITION Speech th
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Page 604 and 605: A-Z 575 drawn. Many stammerers expe
Page 606 and 607: A-Z 577 these children, however, it
Page 608 and 609: Stratificational syntax STRATIFICAT
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Page 612 and 613: In addition to specifying phrase, c
Page 614 and 615: A-Z 585 precedence of the ordered O
Page 616 and 617: A-Z 587 The Stratificational approa
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Page 620 and 621: Stylistics Stylistics is the study
Page 622 and 623: A-Z 593 used in the various Epistle
Page 624 and 625: A-Z 595 paradigmatic axis. However,
Page 626 and 627: A-Z 597 order to illustrate the imp
Page 628 and 629: A-Z 599 One of the few exceptions i
Page 630 and 631: A-Z 601 epizeuxis: repetition of a
Page 632 and 633: Systemic grammar This article is be
Page 634 and 635: A-Z 605 serve’ (ibid.). But these
Page 636 and 637: A-Z 607 ‘active’ actor, active
Page 638 and 639: A-Z 609 structure has to be generat
Page 640 and 641: A-Z 611 each level may either be co
Page 642 and 643: p. 11; Pike, 1982, p. 82). There ar
Page 644 and 645: A-Z 615 STYLISTICS); concentration
Page 646 and 647: A-Z 617 developed at the end of the
Page 650 and 651: As Hoey points out (1983-4, p. 1),
Page 652 and 653: A-Z 623 Van Dijk reasoned that the
Page 654 and 655: A-Z 625 His work on clause relation
Page 656 and 657: A-Z 627 item is often listed as a s
Page 658 and 659: The most typical discourse pattern
Page 660 and 661: A-Z 631 Planning in discourse invol
Page 662 and 663: A-Z 633 NATURALNESS In Text Linguis
Page 664 and 665: Tone languages All the languages in
Page 666 and 667: A-Z 637 different moods; the meanin
Page 668 and 669: A-Z 639 notice that they are less t
Page 670 and 671: A-Z 641 (Carding, 1973). Among Slav
Page 672 and 673: Traditional grammar By traditional
Page 674 and 675: A-Z 645 grammar of Latin. Such gram
Page 676 and 677: A-Z 647 NUMBER, singular and plural
Page 678 and 679: sentences are ambiguous, i.e. that
Page 680 and 681: Figure 2 A-Z 651 dominates it, as s
Page 682 and 683: figure 3 A-Z 653 agree in number, a
Page 684 and 685: A-Z 655 Within this model all sente
Page 686 and 687: A-Z 657 routes that have destroyed
Page 688 and 689: A-Z 659 much so that within a few y
Page 690 and 691: A-Z 661 transmitted the enemy propa
Page 692 and 693: A-Z 663 projection, though there ma
Page 694 and 695: A-Z 665 the PP is governed by the p
Page 696 and 697: A-Z 667 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER REA
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A-Z 669 The subject of these tablet
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A-Z 671 is made up purely of conson
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A-Z 673 In addition, Chinese contai
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A-Z 675 separate sign for the sound
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Bibliography 677 Allwood, J., Ander
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Bibliography 679 Belsey, C. (1980),
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Bibliography 681 Boyes-Braem, P. (1
Page 712 and 713:
Bibliography 683 Carter, B. Jr (196
Page 714 and 715:
Bibliography 685 Coleman, D.W. (198
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Bibliography 687 DeCamp, D. (1971b)
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Bibliography 689 Edmundson, W. (198
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Bibliography 691 Fodor, J.D. and Fr
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Bibliography 693 Garside, R., Leech
Page 724 and 725:
Bibliography 695 Halliday, M.A.K. (
Page 726 and 727:
Bibliography 697 Hjelmslev, L. (197
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Bibliography 699 Ingram, D. (1985),
Page 730 and 731:
Bibliography 701 Kastovsky, D. (198
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Bibliography 703 Kurath, H. et al.
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Bibliography 705 Lesniewski, S. (19
Page 736 and 737:
Bibliography 707 McCawley, J.D. (19
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Bibliography 709 Miller, N. (1986),
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Bibliography 711 Nooteboom, S.G. (1
Page 742 and 743:
Bibliography 713 Pike, K.L. (1945),
Page 744 and 745:
Bibliography 715 Ross, J.R. (1970),
Page 746 and 747:
Bibliography 717 Schubert, R.D. and
Page 748 and 749:
Bibliography 719 Slobin, D.I. (1977
Page 750 and 751:
Bibliography 721 Swadesh, M. (1934)
Page 752 and 753:
Bibliography 723 Valdman, A. and Hi
Page 754 and 755:
Bibliography 725 Williams, E. (1981
Page 756 and 757:
Index Entries are in letter-by-lett
Page 758 and 759:
Index 729 alpha fibres, neurolingui
Page 760 and 761:
Index 731 articles, historical ling
Page 762 and 763:
Index 733 best-match strategy 369 B
Page 764 and 765:
Index 735 CD (conceptual dependency
Page 766 and 767:
Index 737 compatibility, tolerance
Page 768 and 769:
Index 739 non-linguistic, in childr
Page 770 and 771:
Index 741 deaf, sign language 405-1
Page 772 and 773:
Index 743 and lexis 304-5 discourse
Page 774 and 775:
Index 745 text linguistics 463, 464
Page 776 and 777:
Index 747 set theory 401-2, 404 ext
Page 778 and 779:
Index 749 case 67 discourse analysi
Page 780 and 781:
Index 751 Gilliéron, J., dialect s
Page 782 and 783:
Index 753 head parameter, language
Page 784 and 785:
Index 755 incompatible terms, anton
Page 786 and 787:
intransitive processes, systemic gr
Page 788 and 789:
Index 759 language pathology; speec
Page 790 and 791:
Index 761 Lieberman, P., origin of
Page 792 and 793:
Index 763 marker, act in discourse
Page 794 and 795:
Index 765 Montague, R., Montague gr
Page 796 and 797:
Index 767 neologisms aphasia 18 sty
Page 798 and 799:
Index 769 one-word stage 244 on-lin
Page 800 and 801:
Index 771 componential analysis 397
Page 802 and 803:
Index 773 CV- 170 functional 146-52
Page 804 and 805:
Index 775 prepositions historical l
Page 806 and 807:
psycholinguistics 362 psychological
Page 808 and 809:
Index 779 request, speech-act theor
Page 810 and 811:
Index 781 semantic change, historic
Page 812 and 813:
Index 783 singular number, traditio
Page 814 and 815:
Index 785 statement, speech act 422
Page 816 and 817:
Index 787 generative semantics 171,
Page 818 and 819:
Index 789 semiotics 401 speech act
Page 820 and 821:
Index 791 transitive relation, set
Page 822 and 823:
Index 793 vagueness, linguistic exp
Page 824:
language typology 274-5 see also le
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