Illicit Drug use in the Asia Pacific Region - Burnet Institute

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Situational analysis of illicit drug issues and responses in the Asia–Pacific region 186 A6 .7 References Aceijas, C ., Stimson, G ., Hickman, M . and Rhodes, T . (2004) . Global overview of injecting drug use and HIV infection among injecting drug users . AIDS 18: 2295–2303 . Amnesty International (2005) . Prison reports . Retrieved 13 May 2005 from http://web .amnesty .org/report2005/ lao-summary-eng . Australian Agency for International Development (2004) . Illicit Drugs and Development in East and Southeast Asia . Canberra: AusAID . Centre for Harm Reduction (2004) . Feasibility Study: Community based pilot activity for prevention and rehabilitation for young persons involved in ATS abuse . Melbourne: Burnet Institute, Centre for Harm Reduction . Dietzel, D .P . and Hedlund, E .C . (2005) . Injections and return to play . Current Pain and Headache Reports 9(1): 11–16 . Government of Lao PDR (2003) . National Drug Demand Reduction Strategy in Lao PDR . Vientiane: United States Embassy . Lewis, D .R . (2003) . The Long Trip down the Mountain: social and economic impacts of illicit drugs in Thailand. (UNODC Publication No . 12/2004) . Bangkok: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Regional Centre for East Asia and the Pacific . Lyttleton, C . (unpublished report) . Relative Pleasures: drugs, development and enduring dependencies in the Golden Triangle (Draft report) . Sydney: Macquarie University . Lyttleton, C ., Cohen, P .T ., Rattanavong, H ., Tongkhamhan, B . and Sisaengrat, S . (no date) . Watermelons, Bar and Trucks: dangerous intersections in northwest Laos . Brisbane: Macquarie University . McCoy, A . (1991) . The Politics of Heroin: CIA complicity in the global drug trade . New York: Lawrence Hill Books . Office of the Narcotics Control Board, Thailand (2005) . ONBC website . Retrieved 15 April 2005, from http://www .oncb .go .th/ Emain .htm . Reid, G . and Costigan, G . (2002) . Revisiting the ‘Hidden Epidemic’: a situation assessment of drug use in Asia in the context of HIV/AIDS . Melbourne: Burnet Institute, Centre for Harm Reduction . UNICEF (2004) . Assessment of Children in Detention Centres in Lao PDR People’s Supreme Prosecutor and Ministry of Public Security . Vientiane: UNICEF . United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2003) . Thailand Country Report . Paper presented at the UN Regional Task Force on Drugs and HIV Vulnerability, Chiang Rai, Thailand, 15–16 July 2003 . United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2004) . Amphetamine-Type Stimulants in East Asia and the Pacific . Bangkok: UNODC Regional Centre for East Asia and the Pacific . United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2004a) . Lao PDR Country Profile . Vientiane: UNODC . United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2004b) . Laos PDR Opium Survey . Vientiane: UNODC . United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2004c) . Review and Assessment of the Current Organisational Structure of the Lao National Commission for Drug Control and Supervision (LCDC) and its capacity to understand and respond to the emergent issues of drug abuse related HIV . Bangkok: UNODC . United States Embassy (2005) . NAS supports national training workshop on drug data collection and the building of a drug information system . Retrieved 15 April 2005, from http://usembassy .state .gov/laos/ wwwhnatonworkshp .html . United States Department of State, Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (2004) . International narcotics control strategy report: South East Asia . Retrieved 15 January 2005, from http://www .state .gov/g/inl/rls/nrcrpt/ . 187 Country profiles: Laos
Situational analysis of illicit drug issues and responses in the Asia–Pacific region 188 A7 . Macao (Special Administrative Region, China) Geography Located in eastern Asia, bordering the South China Sea and China; generally flat . Arable land: 0% Permanent crops: 0% Other: 100% Note: “green areas” represent 22 .4% (2001) Government Limited democracy and is a special administrative region of China Chief of state: President of China Hu Jintao (since 15 March 2003) Head of government: Chief Executive Edmund Ho Hau-wah (since 20 December 1999) Elections: Chief Executive chosen by a 300-member selection committee for up to two five-year terms Population 445,286 (July 2004 est .) Median age: 35 .2 years Age: 0–14 years: 18% 15–64 years: 74 .2% 65 years and over: 7 .8% (2004 est .) Human development index N/A Unemployment rate 6 .3% (2003) Language Portuguese, Chinese (Cantonese) Literacy % Age 15 and over can read and write: Total population: 94 .5% Male: 97 .2% Female: 92% (2003 est .) Religion Buddhist 50%, Roman Catholic 15%, none and other 35% (1997 est .) Health Life expectancy: 82 .03 years Male: 79 .2 years Female: 84 .99 years (2004 est .) HIV prevalence: 1 .98 per 10,000 residents (2003) Economics GDP: purchasing power parity — $9 .1 billion (2003 est .) Population below poverty line: N/A A7 .1 Narrative summary of drug use vulnerabilities Macao is relatively close to the Golden Triangle production regions for opium and amphetamine-type substances (ATS) . It is also close to mainland China and Hong Kong, has a convenient transport system and retains a flourishing gambling and entertainment industry . These factors alone make it an ideal place for drug consumption and for transit of drugs (Social Welfare Institute, 2002) . Macao is the only place in China where gambling is permitted, and during the 1990s gambling provided almost one-third of gross domestic product . Gambling is closely linked to drug trafficking and consumption and drug money laundering (Kwan, 2004) . Closely associated with the drug trade is money laundering and it was identified in 2003 that Macao’s banks were used as a repository for North Korea’s trade in illegal drugs (Perl, 2003) . In recent years there are many more immigrants from mainland China and an increased percentage of drug users in treatment have been found to be born in mainland China . Immigrants, particularly youth, have to adapt to a new culture, education system, habits and culture and it has been suggested the drug problem may be heightened as a result of these factors (Social Welfare Institute, 2001) . Historical and cultural interactions with drugs Drug use has been a longstanding issue in Macao society, as it has in Hong Kong situated just 60 kilometres south-west of Macao, with opium historically the drug of choice . In 1946, the Macao Government banned the use of opium, and all narcotic drugs, except those used for legitimate medicinal purposes . By the 1960s the main drug of choice was heroin, which was either injected or smoked and commonly mixed with barbiturates . At this time there were approximately 1000 heroin addicts according to police sources, but the numbers were likely to be larger . Between 1947 and 1960 there were over 6000 narcotic users treated either in government hospitals or in prison (Belo, 1996; Reves & Cotta Guerra, 1963; Social Welfare Institute, 2001) . Since that time there has been increasing drug legislation to control the production, distribution, commerce and use of both narcotics and psychotropic drugs . A series of drug conventions were introduced in 1961, 1971 and 1988 in Macao . In 1990, as a result of the persistence of drug use problems, the Office for Prevention and Treatment of Drug Dependence was established . In December 1999, Macao became a Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic of China under the principle of one country, two systems (Belo, 1996; Social Welfare Institute, 2001) . A7 .2 Prevalence of drug use and profile of drug users In 2003, 634 drug users were registered with the authorities, an increase of 17 .6 per cent over the 547 recorded in 2002 . The latest figures include 384 people seeking voluntary treatment from government and NGOs, and 250 prisoners with drug addiction: this figure does not include those repeatedly registered . In 2002, of those registered, 55 per cent injected their drugs, with little change in 2003 (Social Welfare Institute, 2002, 2003, 2004) . There has been no formal estimate of how many drug users there are overall, but a recent study has suggested a figure of about 3700 heroin users, or 0 .87 per cent of the whole population (Social Welfare Institute, 2004) . There were no official estimates of the number of injecting drug users (IDUs), but unofficial estimates suggest there are 500–900 (Aceijas et al ., 2004) . As injecting is the major mode of drug administration among heroin users, this is likely to be an 189 Country profiles: Macao (Special Administrative Region, China)
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