DOE/ORO/2327 Oak Ridge Reservation Annual Site Environmental ...

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Oak Ridge Reservation Table F.1. Radionuclide half-lives Radionuclide Symbol Half-life Radionuclide Symbol Half-life Americium-241 241 Am 432.2 years Plutonium-238 238 Pu 87.75 years Americium-243 243 Am 7.38E+3 years Plutonium-239 239 Pu 2.41E+4 years Antimony-125 125 Sb 2.77 years Plutonium-240 240 Pu 6.569E+3 years Argon-41 41 Ar 1.827 hours Potassium-40 40 K 1.2777E+9 years Beryllium-7 7 Be 53.44 days Promethium-147 147 Pm 2.6234 years Californium-252 252 Cf 2.639 years Protactinium-234m 234m Pa 1.17 minutes Carbon-14 14 C 5.730E+3 years Radium-226 226 Ra 1.6E+3 years Cerium-141 141 Ce 32.50 days Radium-228 228 Ra 5.75 years Cerium-143 143 Ce 1.38 days Ruthenium-103 103 Ru 39.35 days Cerium-144 144 Ce 284.3 days Ruthenium-106 106 Ru 368.2 days Cesium-134 134 Cs 2.062 years Strontium-89 89 Sr 50.55 days Cesium-137 137 Cs 30.17 years Strontium-90 90 Sr 28.6 years Cesium-138 138 Cs 32.2 min Technetium-99 99 Tc 2.13E+5 years Cobalt-58 58 Co 70.80 days Thorium-228 228 Th 1.9132 years Cobalt-60 60 Co 5.271 years Thorium-230 230 Th 7.54E+4 years Curium-242 242 Cm 163.2 days Thorium-232 232 Th 1.405E+10 years Curium-244 244 Cm 18.11 years Thorium-234 234 Th 2.41E+1 day Iodine-129 129 I 157E+7 years Tritium 3 H 12.28 years Iodine-131 131 I 8.04 days Uranium-234 234 U 2.445E+5 years Krypton-85 85 Kr 10.72 years Uranium-235 235 U 7.038E+8 years Krypton-88 88 Kr 2.84 hours Uranium-236 236 U 2.3415E+7 years Manganese-54 54 Mn 312.7 days Uranium-238 238 U 4.468E+9 years Neptunium-237 237 Np 2.14E+6 days Xenon-133 133 Xe 5.245E+9 years Niobium-95 95 Nb 35.06 days Xenon-135 135 Xe 9.11 hours Osmium-185 185 Os 93.6 days Yttrium-90 90 Y 64.1 hours Phosphorus-32 32 P 14.29 days Zirconium-95 95 Zr 64.02 days Polonium-210 210 Po 138.378 days Source: DOE 1989. Radioactive Decay Data Tables: A Handbook of Decay Data for Application to Radioactive Dosimetry and Radiological Assessments, DOE/TIC-11026. F.2 Radiation Radiation, or radiant energy, is energy in the form of waves or particles moving through space. Visible light, heat, radio waves, and alpha particles are examples of radiation. When people feel warmth from sunlight, they are actually absorbing the radiant energy emitted by the sun. Electromagnetic radiation is radiation in the form of electromagnetic waves. Examples include gamma rays, ultraviolet light, and radio waves. Particulate radiation is radiation in the form of particles. Examples include alpha and beta particles. Radiation also is characterized as ionizing or non-ionizing because of the way in which it interacts with matter. F.2.1 Ionizing Radiation Normally, an atom has an equal number of protons and electrons; however, atoms can lose or gain electrons in a process known as ionization. Some forms of radiation (called ionizing radiation) can ionize atoms by “knocking” electrons off atoms. Examples of ionizing radiation include alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. Ionizing radiation is capable of changing the chemical state of matter and subsequently causing biological damage. By this mechanism, it is potentially harmful to human health. F-4 Appendix F. Radiation
F.2.2 Non-ionizing Radiation Annual Site Environmental Report Non-ionizing radiation is described as a series of energy waves composed of oscillating electric and magnetic fields traveling at the speed of light. Non-ionizing radiation includes the spectrum of ultraviolet (UV), visible light, infrared (IR), microwave, radio frequency (RF), and extremely low frequency (ELF). Lasers commonly operate in the UV, visible, and IR frequencies. Microwave radiation is absorbed near the skin, while RF radiation may be absorbed throughout the body. At high enough intensities, both will damage tissue through heating. Excessive visible radiation can damage the eyes and skin (Department of Labor, OSHA Safety and Health Topics, www.OSHA.gov). However, in the discussion that follows, the term “radiation” is used to describe ionizing radiation. F.3 Sources of Radiation Radiation is everywhere. Most occurs naturally; a small percentage is human-made. Naturally occurring radiation is known as background radiation. F.3.1 Background Radiation Many materials are naturally radioactive. In fact, this naturally occurring radiation is the major source of radiation in the environment. Although people have little control over the amount of background radiation to which they are exposed, this exposure must be put into perspective. Background radiation remains relatively constant over time and is present in the environment today much as it was hundreds of years ago. Sources of background radiation include uranium in the earth, radon in the air, and potassium in food. Background radiation is categorized as cosmic, terrestrial, or internal, depending on its origin. F.3.1.1 Cosmic Radiation Energetically charged particles from outer space continuously hit the earth’s atmosphere. These particles and the secondary particles and photons they create are called cosmic radiation. Because the atmosphere provides some shielding against cosmic radiation, the intensity of this radiation increases with altitude above sea level. For example, a person in Denver, Colorado, is exposed to more cosmic radiation than a person in New Orleans, Louisiana. F.3.1.2 Terrestrial Radiation Terrestrial radiation refers to radiation emitted from radioactive materials in the earth’s rocks, soils, and minerals. Radon (Rn), radon progeny (the relatively short-lived decay products from the decay of the radon isotope 222 Rn), potassium ( 40 K), isotopes of thorium (Th), and isotopes of uranium (U) are the elements responsible for most terrestrial radiation. F.3.1.3 Internal Radiation Radionuclides in the environment enter the body with the air people breathe and the foods they eat. They also can enter through an open wound. Natural radionuclides that can be inhaled and ingested include isotopes of uranium and its progeny, especially radon ( 222 Rn) and its progeny, thoron ( 220 Rn) and its progeny, potassium ( 40 K), rubidium ( 87 Rb), and carbon ( 14 C). Radionuclides contained in the body are dominated by 40 K and 210 Po; others include 87 Rb and 14 C (NCRP 1987). F.3.4 Human-Made Radiation In addition to background radiation, there are human-made sources of radiation to which most people are exposed. Examples include consumer products, medical sources, fallout from atmospheric atomic bomb tests, and industrial by-products. No atmospheric testing of atomic weapons has occurred since 1980 (NCRP 1987). Appendix F. Radiation F-5
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Oak Ridge Reservation Annual Site E
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Oak Ridge Reservation 3. East Tenne
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Oak Ridge Reservation Source ID 7-4
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Oak Ridge Reservation 7-6 Dose Tabl
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Oak Ridge Reservation 7.1.3 Current
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Page 367: Appendix B. Glossary
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Page 372 and 373: Oak Ridge Reservation committed dos
Page 374 and 375: Oak Ridge Reservation hectare — A
Page 376 and 377: Oak Ridge Reservation quality facto
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Page 405: Appendix F. Radiation This appendix
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Page 421 and 422: Appendix G. Chemicals This appendix
Page 423 and 424: Table G.1. Chemical reference doses
Page 425 and 426: BW = body weight (70 kg), and Annua
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