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Hardy and James 311 Hardy presents this new world largely through the eyes and inner thoughts of Tess. She is an uneducated farm labourer who speaks in the local dialect of her region and who possesses sharp insight, natural intelligence and deep feelings. Tess is one in a line of such heroines in Hardy’s novels, including Bathsheba Everdene in Far From the Madding Crowd (1874) and Grace Melbury in The Woodlanders (1887), whose natures make them outsiders in their own society as they fall victim to forces and changes, economic, social and sexual, which are outside their control. Here Grace finds herself alone: the world of nature awakens before her eyes, but with an air of mystery and uncertainty, related to her own emotional turmoil: It was even now day out of doors, though the tones of morning were feeble and wan, and it was long before the sun would be perceptible in this overshadowed vale. Not a sound came from any of the out-houses as yet. The tree-trunks, the road, the outbuildings, the garden, every object, wore that aspect of mesmeric passivity which the quietude of daybreak lends to such scenes. Helpless immobility seemed to be combined with intense consciousness; a meditative inertness possessed all things, oppressively contrasting with her own active emotions. Beyond the road were some cottage roofs and orchards; over these roofs and over the apple-trees behind, high up the slope, and backed by the plantation on the crest, was the house yet occupied by her future husband, the rough-cast front showing whitely through its creepers. The window-shutters were closed, the bedroom curtains closely drawn, and not the thinnest coil of smoke rose from the rugged chimneys. Something broke the stillness. The front-door of the house she was gazing at opened softly, and there came out into the porch a female figure, wrapped in a large cloak, beneath which was visible the white skirt of a long loose garment like a night-dress. A grey arm, stretching from within the porch, adjusted the cloak over the woman’s shoulders; it was withdrawn and disappeared, the door closing behind her. (The Woodlanders)
312 The nineteenth century Most of Hardy’s novels are tragedies, or they reveal the cosmic indifference or malevolent ironies which life has in store for everyone, particularly for those unable to curb the demands of their own natures. His last two major novels were Tess of the D’Urbervilles (1891) and Jude the Obscure (1895). Tess is a deeply pessimistic novel, revealing how an intelligent and sensitive girl can be driven to her death by a society which is narrow in morality and in spirit. Jude the Obscure has another central character, Jude Fawley, whose sensual nature cannot be accommodated by a rigid and inflexible social system. The novel has been seen by many as Hardy’s most direct attack on Victorian chains of class-consciousness and social convention. Both Tess and Jude are ambitious and articulate working-class people whose lives cannot be properly fulfilled. Tess is a modern version of ‘the ruined maid’ (a ballad of the same title is used in the novel). Hardy brings together such traditional forms and concepts, sets them in a literary context which goes back to Greek tragedy, and brings out issues which are highly relevant to his own day. Hardy’s vision has been called tragic, and the fate of many of his characters is indeed bleak. Henchard in The Mayor of Casterbridge (1886) rises to power, then brings about his own fall in a manner that recalls the classical forms of tragic drama. But his intention is also social. Tess, ‘a pure woman’, as the subtitle of the novel calls her, is the victim of a hypocritical sexual morality. She finally kills Alec, the man who caused her disgrace. But then society punishes her for that crime too. Jude Fawley’s ‘crime’ is to want an education. The university town of Christminster is always just beyond his reach. Poverty, marriage and family combine to keep him from his ambition. In one of the most tragic scenes, his children are all found dead one morning, with a note left by his son: ‘Done because we are too menny.’ Jude tries to comfort their mother Sue, saying: It was in his nature to do it. The doctor says there are such boys springing up amongst us – boys of a sort unknown in the last generation – the outcome of new views of life. They seem to see all its terrors before they are old enough to have staying power to resist them. He says it is the beginning of the coming universal wish not to live. This is a savage attack on the restrictions of late Victorian society.
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The Routledge History of Literature
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First published 1997 by Routledge 1
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Contents List of illustrations Fore
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Contents ix The Gothic and the subl
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Contents xi THE TWENTIETH CENTURY:
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Illustrations Figure 1 Linguistic b
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xvi Foreword The Routledge History
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xviii Foreword and burlesque and sa
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From the earliest stages, Malcolm B
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Beowulf, the Dane, dear king of his
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6 Old and Middle English 600-1485 T
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8 Old and Middle English 600-1485 t
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10 Old and Middle English 600-1485
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22 Figure 2 The greatest extent of
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The Renaissance 1485-1660
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58 The Renaissance 1485-1660 centur
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60 The Renaissance 1485-1660 would
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62 The Renaissance 1485-1660 were n
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64 The Renaissance 1485-1660 ‘To
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66 The Renaissance 1485-1660 I find
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68 The Renaissance 1485-1660 Mid-su
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70 The Renaissance 1485-1660 and a
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72 The Renaissance 1485-1660 I had
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74 The Renaissance 1485-1660 Faustu
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76 The Renaissance 1485-1660 perfor
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78 The Renaissance 1485-1660 Greek
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80 The Renaissance 1485-1660 47); a
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82 The Renaissance 1485-1660 the Re
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84 The Renaissance 1485-1660 years
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86 The Renaissance 1485-1660 Renais
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88 The Renaissance 1485-1660 terms
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90 The Renaissance 1485-1660 Shakes
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92 The Renaissance 1485-1660 1601 2
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94 The Renaissance 1485-1660 The pu
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96 The Renaissance 1485-1660 Shakes
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98 The Renaissance 1485-1660 most o
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100 The Renaissance 1485-1660 And s
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102 The Renaissance 1485-1660 I all
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104 The Renaissance 1485-1660 In mu
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106 The Renaissance 1485-1660 my he
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108 The Renaissance 1485-1660 Thou
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110 The Renaissance 1485-1660 Trahe
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112 The Renaissance 1485-1660 Old T
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114 The Renaissance 1485-1660 misun
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116 The Renaissance 1485-1660 from
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118 The Renaissance 1485-1660 The t
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120 The Renaissance 1485-1660 Middl
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122 The Renaissance 1485-1660 GIOVA
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124 The Renaissance 1485-1660 SIR B
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126 The Renaissance 1485-1660 The s
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Thy wars brought nothing about; Thy
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Contexts and conditions 131 Sea; no
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Early Milton 133 Revolution was the
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Early Milton 135 good and evil as t
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Early Milton 137 the hero from the
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Restoration drama 139 many lives as
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Restoration drama 141 Revenge! PIER
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Restoration drama 143 One of the fi
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Restoration drama 145 prohibiting
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Restoration drama 147 LOVELESS No,
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Restoration drama 149 PRIM Do they
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Rochester 151 The Theatres Licensin
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Dryden 153 what it saw as the highe
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Dryden 155 his best, and his transl
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Pope 157 POPE True wit is nature to
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Journalism 159 And, spite of pride,
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Scottish Enlightenment, diarists an
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The novel 167 and the social awaren
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The novel 169 Each serial volume of
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The novel 171 paraphrase Pope: what
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The novel 173 polemic comes when he
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The novel 175 That kingdom he hath
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The novel 177 opportunity to set fo
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The novel 179 sentence of death. He
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Criticism 181 to do with that work.
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Johnson 183 (1712). Swift took the
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Johnson 185 There are some hostile
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Sterne, Smollett and Scottish voice
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Drama after 1737 195 MISS HARDCASTL
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Poetry after Pope 197 Thomas Gray
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Poetry after Pope 199 Nor rural sig
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Poetry after Pope 201 but by no mea
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Melancholy, madness and nature 203
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The Gothic and the sublime 209 Burk
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The Gothic and the sublime 211 conc
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The Gothic and the sublime 213 all
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Bliss was it in that dawn to be ali
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Contexts and conditions 219 and mor
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Contexts and conditions 221 economi
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Contexts and conditions 223 past, p
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Blake, Wordsworth and Coleridge 225
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Keats 235 and completing the poetic
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Keats 237 beauty but at the same ti
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Shelley 239 Keats also gives us occ
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Shelley 241 or sail around Venice.
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Byron 243 Each like a corpse within
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Byron 245 What I have done is done;
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Byron 247 Though the night was made
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Romantic prose 249 Bright yellow is
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Romantic prose 251 one of the Immor
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The novel in the Romantic period 25
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Jane Austen 255 the remotest antiqu
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Jane Austen 257 she wrote in her le
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Jane Austen 259 LANGUAGE NOTE Jane
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362 The twentieth century: 1900-45
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The twentieth century 1945 to the p
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448 The twentieth century: 1945 to
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544 Timelines 802 Egbert of Wessex
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546 Timelines 1189 Accession of Kin
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548 Timelines became King Henry VI
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550 Timelines 1513 Niccolo Machiave
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552 Timelines 1578 Opening of The T
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554 Timelines 1685 Death of Charles
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556 Timelines 1811-12 The campaign
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558 Timelines the USA expanded towa
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560 Timelines USA, which demanded t
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562 Timelines conceded. The phrase
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564 Timelines policy, with enormous
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Acknowledgements W.H. AUDEN, Their
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568 Acknowledgements D.H. LAWRENCE,
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Select bibliography The following b
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572 Select bibliography Dollimore,
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574 Select bibliography Miner, Earl
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576 Select bibliography Burrow, J.W
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578 Select bibliography Sinfield, A
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580 Index Ballantyne, R(obert) M(ic
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582 Index Cockburn, Alison (c.1712-
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584 Index Gaskell, (Mrs) Elizabeth
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586 Index Keats, John (1795-1821) 1
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588 Index Morris, William (1834-96)
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590 Index Seneca, Lucius Annaeus (c
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592 Index Waugh, Evelyn (1903-66) 3
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