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Woolf and Joyce 429 of the novel, which begins ‘riverrun, past Eve and Adam’s, from swerve of shore to bend of bay . . .’. LANGUAGE NOTE Irish English, nationality and literature A rich language. A rich literature . . . full of mythologies of fantasy and hope and self-deception – a syntax opulent with tomorrows. It is our response to mud cabins and a diet of potatoes; our only method of replying to . . . inevitabilities. (Brian Friel, Translations, 1981) Ireland was England’s first colony, its local culture and languages absorbed by a Protestant English-speaking culture. Anglo-Norman knights invaded parts of Gaelic-speaking Ireland in the twelfth century and English law was introduced. During the Tudor period, settlers from England and Scotland took over large plantations of land and attempts at rebellion by the Irish were quashed in a number of military campaigns, one of which was led by Oliver Cromwell. In 1801 the Act of Union made Ireland part of the United Kingdom, a situation which remained until the 1920s when there was a partition between the mainly Catholic South (Eire) and the mainly Protestant North (Ulster). Paradoxically, however, after eight centuries of contact with English and considerable linguistic domination, Irish Gaelic (Erse) became the official national language of the newly independent Irish state of Eire. In spite of the official status of Gaelic and numerous attempts to revive and extend the language, the linguistic reality is none the less that English is used throughout Ireland, with Gaelic only extensively used in the West of Ireland. Above all, Gaelic retains an emblematic importance and since the nineteenth century numerous writers have attempted to recognise the position of Gaelic as an example of the need to impart a specifically Irish identity to Irish literature written in English. One central question posed was whether English could be sufficiently re-created so that a distinctive Irish English voice emerged. In this re-creation the Irish writers have to avoid the cultural and linguistic imposition of English at the same time as they have to avoid an unduly romantic and nostalgic regard for the position of Gaelic.
430 The twentieth century: 1900–45 Seamus Heaney has described well the sense of dislocation induced in the Irish by the English language: History, which has woven the fabric of English life and landscape and language into a seamless garment, has rent the fabric of Irish life, has effected a breach between its past and present, and an alienation between the speaker and his speech. Irish (or Hiberno-English) has distinctive varietal features of pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar, although patterns vary considerably between North and South and East and West. In grammar, for example, tense and aspect are structured differently from standard southern English. I do be is a habitual present tense and the form ‘after’ is used in Irish English to record a completed act or to express recency: thus, they’re after leaving has the meaning of ‘they have just left’, and he was after saying means he had just said. The variety also has distinctive discourse and conversational patterns: for example, it is common for a question to answered with a question: A: Can you tell me where the post office is? B: Would it be stamps you’re looking for?; Gaelic-influenced word order in questions is also common: Is it ready you are?; and standard English ‘but’ is used with the meaning of ‘though’: He still went there but. (See also the quotation from J.M. Synge, page 385.) Writers regularly attempted to exploit the distinctive patterns of Irish English but, as is the case with writers such as Hugh MacDiarmid and Scots, invented or ‘forged’ artificial versions, which retain as much intelligibility as the writer judges proper for a wide English-speaking reading public, are actually used. In the many sections of Joyce’s fiction which involve narrative recounts, Irish colloquial speech patterns are prevalent: What was he after doing it only into the bucket of porter. (Ulysses) I know you are a friend of his and not like some of those others he does be with. (Grace) But still and all he kept on saying that before the summer was over he’d go out for a drive one fine day just to see the old house again where we were all born down in Irishtown, and take me and Nannie with him. If we could only get one of them new-fangled carriages that makes no noise that Father
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The Routledge History of Literature
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First published 1997 by Routledge 1
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Contents List of illustrations Fore
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Contents ix The Gothic and the subl
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Contents xi THE TWENTIETH CENTURY:
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Illustrations Figure 1 Linguistic b
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xvi Foreword The Routledge History
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xviii Foreword and burlesque and sa
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From the earliest stages, Malcolm B
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Beowulf, the Dane, dear king of his
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6 Old and Middle English 600-1485 T
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8 Old and Middle English 600-1485 t
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10 Old and Middle English 600-1485
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22 Figure 2 The greatest extent of
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The Renaissance 1485-1660
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58 The Renaissance 1485-1660 centur
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60 The Renaissance 1485-1660 would
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62 The Renaissance 1485-1660 were n
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64 The Renaissance 1485-1660 ‘To
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66 The Renaissance 1485-1660 I find
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68 The Renaissance 1485-1660 Mid-su
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70 The Renaissance 1485-1660 and a
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72 The Renaissance 1485-1660 I had
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74 The Renaissance 1485-1660 Faustu
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76 The Renaissance 1485-1660 perfor
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78 The Renaissance 1485-1660 Greek
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80 The Renaissance 1485-1660 47); a
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82 The Renaissance 1485-1660 the Re
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84 The Renaissance 1485-1660 years
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86 The Renaissance 1485-1660 Renais
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88 The Renaissance 1485-1660 terms
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90 The Renaissance 1485-1660 Shakes
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92 The Renaissance 1485-1660 1601 2
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94 The Renaissance 1485-1660 The pu
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96 The Renaissance 1485-1660 Shakes
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98 The Renaissance 1485-1660 most o
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100 The Renaissance 1485-1660 And s
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102 The Renaissance 1485-1660 I all
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104 The Renaissance 1485-1660 In mu
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106 The Renaissance 1485-1660 my he
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108 The Renaissance 1485-1660 Thou
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110 The Renaissance 1485-1660 Trahe
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112 The Renaissance 1485-1660 Old T
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114 The Renaissance 1485-1660 misun
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116 The Renaissance 1485-1660 from
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118 The Renaissance 1485-1660 The t
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120 The Renaissance 1485-1660 Middl
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122 The Renaissance 1485-1660 GIOVA
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124 The Renaissance 1485-1660 SIR B
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126 The Renaissance 1485-1660 The s
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Thy wars brought nothing about; Thy
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Contexts and conditions 131 Sea; no
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Early Milton 133 Revolution was the
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Early Milton 135 good and evil as t
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Early Milton 137 the hero from the
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Restoration drama 139 many lives as
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Restoration drama 141 Revenge! PIER
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Restoration drama 143 One of the fi
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Restoration drama 145 prohibiting
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Restoration drama 147 LOVELESS No,
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Restoration drama 149 PRIM Do they
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Rochester 151 The Theatres Licensin
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Dryden 153 what it saw as the highe
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Dryden 155 his best, and his transl
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Pope 157 POPE True wit is nature to
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Journalism 159 And, spite of pride,
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Scottish Enlightenment, diarists an
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The novel 167 and the social awaren
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The novel 169 Each serial volume of
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The novel 171 paraphrase Pope: what
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The novel 173 polemic comes when he
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The novel 175 That kingdom he hath
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The novel 177 opportunity to set fo
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The novel 179 sentence of death. He
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Criticism 181 to do with that work.
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Johnson 183 (1712). Swift took the
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Johnson 185 There are some hostile
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Sterne, Smollett and Scottish voice
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Drama after 1737 195 MISS HARDCASTL
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Poetry after Pope 197 Thomas Gray
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Poetry after Pope 199 Nor rural sig
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Poetry after Pope 201 but by no mea
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Melancholy, madness and nature 203
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The Gothic and the sublime 209 Burk
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The Gothic and the sublime 211 conc
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The Gothic and the sublime 213 all
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Bliss was it in that dawn to be ali
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Contexts and conditions 219 and mor
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Contexts and conditions 221 economi
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Contexts and conditions 223 past, p
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Blake, Wordsworth and Coleridge 225
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Keats 235 and completing the poetic
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Keats 237 beauty but at the same ti
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Shelley 239 Keats also gives us occ
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Shelley 241 or sail around Venice.
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Byron 243 Each like a corpse within
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Byron 245 What I have done is done;
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Byron 247 Though the night was made
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Romantic prose 249 Bright yellow is
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Romantic prose 251 one of the Immor
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The novel in the Romantic period 25
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Jane Austen 255 the remotest antiqu
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Jane Austen 257 she wrote in her le
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Jane Austen 259 LANGUAGE NOTE Jane
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Scott 261 and scarcely even picture
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Scott 263 She coloured highly, and
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From Gothic to Frankenstein 265 flu
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The Scottish regional novel 267 (18
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The nineteenth century
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272 The nineteenth century of Queen
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274 The nineteenth century Smollett
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276 The nineteenth century Hard Tim
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278 The nineteenth century Podsnap
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280 The nineteenth century income a
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282 The nineteenth century cover su
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284 The nineteenth century in some
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286 The nineteenth century earlier
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288 The nineteenth century the end.
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290 The nineteenth century Charlott
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292 The nineteenth century by Dicke
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294 The nineteenth century the ‘v
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296 The nineteenth century LATE VIC
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298 The nineteenth century fathers
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300 The nineteenth century In his l
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302 The nineteenth century An old w
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304 The nineteenth century is a cla
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306 The nineteenth century there ca
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308 The nineteenth century Renaissa
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310 The nineteenth century of Doria
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312 The nineteenth century Most of
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314 The nineteenth century embellis
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316 The nineteenth century Irish; F
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318 The nineteenth century justifie
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320 The nineteenth century However,
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322 The nineteenth century mode of
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324 The nineteenth century the firs
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326 The nineteenth century Its titl
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328 The nineteenth century also saw
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330 The nineteenth century aware so
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332 The nineteenth century Stitch!
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334 The nineteenth century Her robe
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336 The nineteenth century year as
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338 The nineteenth century twentiet
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340 The nineteenth century But if y
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342 The nineteenth century we can r
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The twentieth century 1900-45
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348 The twentieth century: 1900-45
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480 The twentieth century: 1945 to
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544 Timelines 802 Egbert of Wessex
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546 Timelines 1189 Accession of Kin
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548 Timelines became King Henry VI
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550 Timelines 1513 Niccolo Machiave
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552 Timelines 1578 Opening of The T
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554 Timelines 1685 Death of Charles
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556 Timelines 1811-12 The campaign
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558 Timelines the USA expanded towa
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560 Timelines USA, which demanded t
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562 Timelines conceded. The phrase
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564 Timelines policy, with enormous
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Acknowledgements W.H. AUDEN, Their
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568 Acknowledgements D.H. LAWRENCE,
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Select bibliography The following b
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572 Select bibliography Dollimore,
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574 Select bibliography Miner, Earl
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576 Select bibliography Burrow, J.W
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578 Select bibliography Sinfield, A
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580 Index Ballantyne, R(obert) M(ic
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582 Index Cockburn, Alison (c.1712-
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584 Index Gaskell, (Mrs) Elizabeth
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586 Index Keats, John (1795-1821) 1
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588 Index Morris, William (1834-96)
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590 Index Seneca, Lucius Annaeus (c
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592 Index Waugh, Evelyn (1903-66) 3
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