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Hardy and James 315 Although Hardy was among the first English novelists who understood the social and personal significance of dialects in relation to Standard English, he remained for the most part constrained by the Victorian convention that main characters in a novel, especially those characters who are meant to engage the sympathy of the reader, should consistently speak Standard English. Paradoxically, therefore, major characters such as Tess and Jude (the Obscure) only rarely speak in local dialects, in spite of their social positions. What is important, however, is that Hardy represents his characters as speaking in a way which would be normal both for other characters and readers. He wanted to capture the spirit of independence in his characters but could not risk underlining this by an over-reliance on dialect speech. In many respects, however, Hardy paved the way for twentiethcentury novelists such as D.H. Lawrence, who made working-class characters central to his fiction and who in turn made more extensive use of dialect in their language and as a central element in the representation of values in ways suggested by the nineteenth-century poet and writer William Barnes: [Dialect] will not, however, be every-where immediately given up as the language of the land-folk’s fire-side, though to outsiders they may speak pretty good English, since ‘fine-talking’ (as it is called) on the lips of a home-born villager, is generally laughed at by his neighbours as a piece of affectation. Many of the novelists of the end of the Victorian age can be considered outsiders for one reason or another. Hardy was from the West Country, Gissing from the industrial North. Wilde was an outsider twice over, as an Irishman and a homosexual. This preponderance of outsiders becomes even more noticeable between the 1890s and 1914: Henry James was born in America, Joseph Conrad in the Ukraine (to a Polish family), Rudyard Kipling in India where much of his work is set, and George Bernard Shaw was another Irishman. As we move into the twentieth century, literature’s horizons and influences expand in a broader vision. E.M. Forster, although of the southern English middle class, was homosexual, and his work reflects an outsider’s concern with Englishness. D.H. Lawrence was from the working class, and spent much of his life in exile from England. T.S. Eliot was born in America; James Joyce was
316 The nineteenth century Irish; Ford Madox Ford was of German extraction, changing his original surname, Hueffer, to the more English-sounding Ford in 1919. An American by birth, Henry James also stands ‘outside’ Britain, although his education was divided between America and Europe. He was deeply attracted to European culture but explored it from the perspective of a sophistcated New York background. When the First World War broke out in 1914, James became a British citizen. His early novels, such as The Americans (1877), Daisy Miller (1879) and The Portrait of a Lady (1881), explore differences between European and American high society. The main point of view is that of an ‘innocent’ character who undergoes conflicts between innocence and experience. The novels are written in the manner of a Bildungsroman (a growingup novel) and in them he reveals considerable depths in understanding female psychology. In What Maisie Knew (1897), the narrative is recounted almost completely from the point of view of a child’s consciousness and understanding. Maisie is 6 years old when her parents divorce and she is forced to live alternately with both of them. The novel is a considerable technical and formal achievement, as James manages to re-create a child’s world and to use language to represent her thought-processes and perceptions. In later novels such as The Wings of the Dove and The Ambassadors, James’s style is even more subtle, in order to render complexities of thought and feeling in the ‘stream of consciousness’ of the main characters who are each in different ways ‘outsiders’ in their society. James was always deeply concerned with art, and how art both shapes and reflects life. From the short story The Figure in the Carpet, which shows a concern with the mysteries and intricacies of a design, to his fine novel The Golden Bowl, art, artifice and their role in human life are probed and evaluated. The Prince continued very nobly to bethink himself. ‘Didn’t we get you anything?’ Maggie waited a little; she had for some time, now, kept her eyes on him steadily; but they wandered, at this, to the fragments on her chimney. ‘Yes; it comes round, after all, to your having got me the bowl. I myself was to come upon it, the other day, by so wonderful a chance; was to find it in the same place and to have it pressed upon me by the same little man, who does, as
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The Routledge History of Literature
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First published 1997 by Routledge 1
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Contents List of illustrations Fore
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Contents ix The Gothic and the subl
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Contents xi THE TWENTIETH CENTURY:
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Illustrations Figure 1 Linguistic b
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xvi Foreword The Routledge History
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xviii Foreword and burlesque and sa
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From the earliest stages, Malcolm B
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Beowulf, the Dane, dear king of his
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6 Old and Middle English 600-1485 T
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8 Old and Middle English 600-1485 t
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10 Old and Middle English 600-1485
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22 Figure 2 The greatest extent of
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The Renaissance 1485-1660
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58 The Renaissance 1485-1660 centur
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60 The Renaissance 1485-1660 would
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62 The Renaissance 1485-1660 were n
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64 The Renaissance 1485-1660 ‘To
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66 The Renaissance 1485-1660 I find
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68 The Renaissance 1485-1660 Mid-su
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70 The Renaissance 1485-1660 and a
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72 The Renaissance 1485-1660 I had
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74 The Renaissance 1485-1660 Faustu
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76 The Renaissance 1485-1660 perfor
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78 The Renaissance 1485-1660 Greek
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80 The Renaissance 1485-1660 47); a
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82 The Renaissance 1485-1660 the Re
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84 The Renaissance 1485-1660 years
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86 The Renaissance 1485-1660 Renais
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88 The Renaissance 1485-1660 terms
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90 The Renaissance 1485-1660 Shakes
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92 The Renaissance 1485-1660 1601 2
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94 The Renaissance 1485-1660 The pu
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96 The Renaissance 1485-1660 Shakes
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98 The Renaissance 1485-1660 most o
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100 The Renaissance 1485-1660 And s
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102 The Renaissance 1485-1660 I all
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104 The Renaissance 1485-1660 In mu
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106 The Renaissance 1485-1660 my he
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108 The Renaissance 1485-1660 Thou
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110 The Renaissance 1485-1660 Trahe
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112 The Renaissance 1485-1660 Old T
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114 The Renaissance 1485-1660 misun
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116 The Renaissance 1485-1660 from
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118 The Renaissance 1485-1660 The t
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120 The Renaissance 1485-1660 Middl
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122 The Renaissance 1485-1660 GIOVA
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124 The Renaissance 1485-1660 SIR B
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126 The Renaissance 1485-1660 The s
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Thy wars brought nothing about; Thy
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Contexts and conditions 131 Sea; no
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Early Milton 133 Revolution was the
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Early Milton 135 good and evil as t
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Early Milton 137 the hero from the
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Restoration drama 139 many lives as
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Restoration drama 141 Revenge! PIER
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Restoration drama 143 One of the fi
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Restoration drama 145 prohibiting
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Restoration drama 147 LOVELESS No,
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Restoration drama 149 PRIM Do they
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Rochester 151 The Theatres Licensin
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Dryden 153 what it saw as the highe
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Dryden 155 his best, and his transl
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Pope 157 POPE True wit is nature to
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Journalism 159 And, spite of pride,
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Scottish Enlightenment, diarists an
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The novel 167 and the social awaren
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The novel 169 Each serial volume of
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The novel 171 paraphrase Pope: what
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The novel 173 polemic comes when he
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The novel 175 That kingdom he hath
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The novel 177 opportunity to set fo
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The novel 179 sentence of death. He
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Criticism 181 to do with that work.
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Johnson 183 (1712). Swift took the
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Johnson 185 There are some hostile
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Sterne, Smollett and Scottish voice
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Drama after 1737 195 MISS HARDCASTL
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Poetry after Pope 197 Thomas Gray
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Poetry after Pope 199 Nor rural sig
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Poetry after Pope 201 but by no mea
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Melancholy, madness and nature 203
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The Gothic and the sublime 209 Burk
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The Gothic and the sublime 211 conc
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The Gothic and the sublime 213 all
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Bliss was it in that dawn to be ali
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Contexts and conditions 219 and mor
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Contexts and conditions 221 economi
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Contexts and conditions 223 past, p
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Blake, Wordsworth and Coleridge 225
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Keats 235 and completing the poetic
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Keats 237 beauty but at the same ti
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Shelley 239 Keats also gives us occ
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Shelley 241 or sail around Venice.
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Byron 243 Each like a corpse within
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Byron 245 What I have done is done;
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Byron 247 Though the night was made
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Romantic prose 249 Bright yellow is
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Romantic prose 251 one of the Immor
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The novel in the Romantic period 25
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Jane Austen 255 the remotest antiqu
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Jane Austen 257 she wrote in her le
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Jane Austen 259 LANGUAGE NOTE Jane
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Scott 261 and scarcely even picture
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Scott 263 She coloured highly, and
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Page 290: The nineteenth century
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366 The twentieth century: 1900-45
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The twentieth century 1945 to the p
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448 The twentieth century: 1945 to
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544 Timelines 802 Egbert of Wessex
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546 Timelines 1189 Accession of Kin
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548 Timelines became King Henry VI
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550 Timelines 1513 Niccolo Machiave
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552 Timelines 1578 Opening of The T
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554 Timelines 1685 Death of Charles
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556 Timelines 1811-12 The campaign
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558 Timelines the USA expanded towa
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560 Timelines USA, which demanded t
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562 Timelines conceded. The phrase
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564 Timelines policy, with enormous
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Acknowledgements W.H. AUDEN, Their
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568 Acknowledgements D.H. LAWRENCE,
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Select bibliography The following b
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572 Select bibliography Dollimore,
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574 Select bibliography Miner, Earl
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576 Select bibliography Burrow, J.W
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578 Select bibliography Sinfield, A
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580 Index Ballantyne, R(obert) M(ic
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582 Index Cockburn, Alison (c.1712-
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584 Index Gaskell, (Mrs) Elizabeth
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586 Index Keats, John (1795-1821) 1
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588 Index Morris, William (1834-96)
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590 Index Seneca, Lucius Annaeus (c
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592 Index Waugh, Evelyn (1903-66) 3
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