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Contexts and conditions 63 absorbed innumerable words with Latin and Greek origins but had also borrowed many words from French, Italian, Spanish and Portuguese – other countries similarly involved in an expansion of their usual territorial boundaries. During the sixteenth century, however, and in a time of worldwide exploration and expansion, new words came into English from over fifty other languages, including the languages of Africa, Asia, and North America. The lexicon of English expanded to meet the need to talk about the new concepts, especially scientific concepts, inventions, materials and descriptive terms which accompanied the rapidly developing fields of medicine, technology, science and the arts. The expansion provoked much discussion and argument and led to the ‘Inkhorn Controversy’ (see Language note, page 77). The influx of foreign words was only one aspect of an expanding lexicon during this period. Many new formations of words were made by adding prefixes and suffixes and by creating new compounds. The following words entered English at this time and in these ways: PREFIXES: SUFFIXES: COMPOUNDING: nonsense; uncivilised; uncomfortable; disrobe; endear. laughable; immaturity; frequenter. Frenchwoman; heaven-sent; laughing-stock. Also common was word-class conversion, a process whereby one class of words is changed into another: for example, a noun (‘an invite’) is formed from the verb ‘to invite’; or the verb ‘to gossip’ is formed from the noun (‘gossip’). The use of one word class with the function of another was a common feature of Shakespeare’s English. In the following two examples verbs are made from nouns: Julius Caesar/ Who at Philippi the good Brutus ghosted It out-herods Herod The expansion of the lexicon of English owes much to the linguistic creativity of Shakespeare whose inventions have become a part of modern English idiom, although the same meanings are not necessarily preserved. Here are examples from Shakespeare’s Hamlet, all of which occur in the modern English lexicon:
64 The Renaissance 1485–1660 ‘To the manner born’ (Act I, scene iv) ‘Brevity is the soul of wit’ (Act II, scene ii) ‘I must be cruel only to be kind’ (Act III, scene iv) SHAKESPEARE, LATIN AND A DOUBLE VOICE Here is an example of the way Shakespeare exploits tensions between formal, Latin-derived vocabulary and more informal English vocabulary for purposes of dramatic effect. The extract is taken from Macbeth’s soliloquy in the last scene of Act I: If it were done when ’tis done, then ’twere well It were done quickly. If the assassination Could trammel up the consequence, and catch With his surcease success – that but this blow Might be the be-all and end-all – here But here, upon this bank and shoal of time, We’d jump the life to come. The soliloquy contains two voices: the lexicon of Latin and the lexicon of English. The Latin words are deployed almost as if Macbeth cannot find an ordinary word for the act of murder he is considering. ‘Assassination’ and ‘consequence’ are uncommon, unspoken words for uncommon, unspoken acts. Macbeth is caught between surface appearance and sordid reality and the two alternatives are expressed by two kinds of diction. Shakespeare satirised the over-use of formal, Latinate diction in the character of Holofernes in Love’s Labour’s Lost, but his main purpose is not satirical, nor is it simply to use Latinisms and new poetic compounds because they were fashionable. Throughout Macbeth the double voice is an essential element in the characterisation of Macbeth. RENAISSANCE POETRY They flee from me that sometime did me seek (Sir Thomas Wyatt, Thy flee from me) The Renaissance did not break completely with mediaeval history and values. Sir Philip Sidney is often considered the model of the perfect Renaissance gentleman. He embodied the mediaeval virtues of the knight (the noble warrior),
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The Routledge History of Literature
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First published 1997 by Routledge 1
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Contents List of illustrations Fore
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Contents ix The Gothic and the subl
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Contents xi THE TWENTIETH CENTURY:
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Illustrations Figure 1 Linguistic b
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xvi Foreword The Routledge History
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xviii Foreword and burlesque and sa
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From the earliest stages, Malcolm B
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Beowulf, the Dane, dear king of his
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6 Old and Middle English 600-1485 T
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8 Old and Middle English 600-1485 t
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10 Old and Middle English 600-1485
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114 The Renaissance 1485-1660 misun
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116 The Renaissance 1485-1660 from
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118 The Renaissance 1485-1660 The t
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120 The Renaissance 1485-1660 Middl
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122 The Renaissance 1485-1660 GIOVA
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124 The Renaissance 1485-1660 SIR B
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126 The Renaissance 1485-1660 The s
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Thy wars brought nothing about; Thy
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Contexts and conditions 131 Sea; no
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Early Milton 133 Revolution was the
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Early Milton 135 good and evil as t
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Early Milton 137 the hero from the
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Restoration drama 139 many lives as
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Restoration drama 141 Revenge! PIER
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Restoration drama 143 One of the fi
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Restoration drama 145 prohibiting
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Restoration drama 147 LOVELESS No,
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Restoration drama 149 PRIM Do they
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Rochester 151 The Theatres Licensin
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Dryden 153 what it saw as the highe
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Dryden 155 his best, and his transl
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Pope 157 POPE True wit is nature to
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Journalism 159 And, spite of pride,
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Scottish Enlightenment, diarists an
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The novel 167 and the social awaren
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The novel 169 Each serial volume of
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The novel 171 paraphrase Pope: what
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The novel 173 polemic comes when he
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The novel 175 That kingdom he hath
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The novel 177 opportunity to set fo
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The novel 179 sentence of death. He
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Criticism 181 to do with that work.
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Johnson 183 (1712). Swift took the
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Johnson 185 There are some hostile
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Sterne, Smollett and Scottish voice
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Drama after 1737 195 MISS HARDCASTL
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Poetry after Pope 197 Thomas Gray
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Poetry after Pope 199 Nor rural sig
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Poetry after Pope 201 but by no mea
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Melancholy, madness and nature 203
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The Gothic and the sublime 209 Burk
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The Gothic and the sublime 211 conc
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The Gothic and the sublime 213 all
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Bliss was it in that dawn to be ali
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Contexts and conditions 219 and mor
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Contexts and conditions 221 economi
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Contexts and conditions 223 past, p
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Blake, Wordsworth and Coleridge 225
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Keats 235 and completing the poetic
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Keats 237 beauty but at the same ti
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Shelley 239 Keats also gives us occ
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Shelley 241 or sail around Venice.
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Byron 243 Each like a corpse within
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Byron 245 What I have done is done;
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Byron 247 Though the night was made
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Romantic prose 249 Bright yellow is
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Romantic prose 251 one of the Immor
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The novel in the Romantic period 25
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Jane Austen 255 the remotest antiqu
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Jane Austen 257 she wrote in her le
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Jane Austen 259 LANGUAGE NOTE Jane
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Scott 261 and scarcely even picture
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Scott 263 She coloured highly, and
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From Gothic to Frankenstein 265 flu
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The Scottish regional novel 267 (18
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The nineteenth century
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272 The nineteenth century of Queen
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274 The nineteenth century Smollett
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276 The nineteenth century Hard Tim
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278 The nineteenth century Podsnap
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280 The nineteenth century income a
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282 The nineteenth century cover su
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284 The nineteenth century in some
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286 The nineteenth century earlier
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288 The nineteenth century the end.
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290 The nineteenth century Charlott
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292 The nineteenth century by Dicke
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294 The nineteenth century the ‘v
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296 The nineteenth century LATE VIC
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298 The nineteenth century fathers
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300 The nineteenth century In his l
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302 The nineteenth century An old w
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304 The nineteenth century is a cla
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306 The nineteenth century there ca
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308 The nineteenth century Renaissa
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310 The nineteenth century of Doria
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312 The nineteenth century Most of
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314 The nineteenth century embellis
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316 The nineteenth century Irish; F
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318 The nineteenth century justifie
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320 The nineteenth century However,
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322 The nineteenth century mode of
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324 The nineteenth century the firs
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326 The nineteenth century Its titl
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328 The nineteenth century also saw
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330 The nineteenth century aware so
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332 The nineteenth century Stitch!
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334 The nineteenth century Her robe
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336 The nineteenth century year as
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338 The nineteenth century twentiet
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340 The nineteenth century But if y
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342 The nineteenth century we can r
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The twentieth century 1900-45
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348 The twentieth century: 1900-45
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The twentieth century 1945 to the p
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448 The twentieth century: 1945 to
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544 Timelines 802 Egbert of Wessex
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546 Timelines 1189 Accession of Kin
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548 Timelines became King Henry VI
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550 Timelines 1513 Niccolo Machiave
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552 Timelines 1578 Opening of The T
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554 Timelines 1685 Death of Charles
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556 Timelines 1811-12 The campaign
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558 Timelines the USA expanded towa
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560 Timelines USA, which demanded t
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562 Timelines conceded. The phrase
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564 Timelines policy, with enormous
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Acknowledgements W.H. AUDEN, Their
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568 Acknowledgements D.H. LAWRENCE,
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Select bibliography The following b
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572 Select bibliography Dollimore,
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574 Select bibliography Miner, Earl
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576 Select bibliography Burrow, J.W
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578 Select bibliography Sinfield, A
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580 Index Ballantyne, R(obert) M(ic
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582 Index Cockburn, Alison (c.1712-
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584 Index Gaskell, (Mrs) Elizabeth
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586 Index Keats, John (1795-1821) 1
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588 Index Morris, William (1834-96)
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590 Index Seneca, Lucius Annaeus (c
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592 Index Waugh, Evelyn (1903-66) 3
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