60199616-flight-to-freedom-african-runaways-and-maroons-in-the-americas

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Introduction 5 The Cockpit Country and Blue Mountains of Jamaica, the Bahoruco (Baoruco) region on the border between Haiti and the Dominican Republic, the Bayamón Mountains in Puerto Rico, the Cottica and Marowijne River areas of Suriname and many places in Santiago de Cuba hold strong memories of Maroon dwellings and deeds, and the descendants of Maroons still live as distinctive groups in some of these places. Among the place names resonant of the Maroon heritage that have survived are Lake Enriquillo in the Dominican Republic; Runaway Creek in Belize; Piton des Nègres, Piton des Ténèbres, Crête à Congo, Pic des Platons and Cavernes de Cavaillon in Haiti; Morne Nègre Marron (Morne Laurent) in Dominica; Nanny Falls, Nanny Town, Accompong Town, Guy’s Town and Molly Town in Jamaica; Todos Tenemos Stream, Guardamujeres Stream, Guardamujeres Mountain, Ajengiblar Stream, Calunga Stream and Calunga Mountain in Cuba; and Dismal Swamp in the United States. Even the relatively small island of Antigua retains a vestige of Maroon heritage in Runaway Bay, and the tiny islands of Bermuda (with an estimated total size of only twenty-one square miles) have Jeffrey’s Cave in memory of a runaway who hid there for some weeks. Towards the end of the last century Suriname’s nationalist government named the military barracks in Paramaribo, the nation’s capital, Membre Boekoe (Boucou, Buku) (Remember Boekoe), in tribute to the brave struggle waged by the Aluku (Boni) Maroons at their capital of that name against the mercenary and regular soldiers that were sent against them (Thoden van Velzen 1995, 112; Hoogbergen 1993, 181). In other places, small towns, villages and other communities clearly reflect both Maroon and wider African heritage, such as the numerous pueblos de morenos of the Costa Chica in Mexico; the settlements of Matta Escura, Armacao, Piraja, Estrada da Liberdade, Itapoa and Cabula in Salvador, Brazil; the Playeros (“beach people”) of the rivers and coastal areas of Darien in Panama; and the inhabitants of the Pearl Islands on that country’s Pacific coast. Even in Costa Rica, with a small Maroon community and heritage, the runaways are remembered as Zambos or Zambos-Moskitos, whose ancestors established settlements in areas remote from Spanish control and tormented the colonists until the government made peace with them in the eighteenth century. James Lockhart and Stuart B. Schwartz (1983, 220) tell us that in Brazil today more than 150 rural and urban names are derived from mocambo (the Kimbundu word for “mountain peak”) and quilombo (“capital” or “town”). Some settlements had rather curious names, such as Carrion Crow Hill in
6 Flight to Freedom Jamaica, Urubu (Vulture) in Brazil, and Todos Tenemos (We All Have) and Guardamujeres (Protect Women) in Cuba. Archaeological work and field expeditions by scholars in Cuba, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, the United States, Suriname, Jamaica and elsewhere are adding to our knowledge of the exact sites of many of the settlements and the material and social culture of their inhabitants. In the case of Jamaica, such work, aided by historical maps, other contemporary records and oral traditions, has allowed Kofi Agorsah and others to locate more precisely Gun Hill, Watch Hill, Lookout Point (Parade), Kindah, Bathing Place, Petty River Bottom, Gun Barrel, Killdead, Ambush, Peace Cave and several other Maroon sites. They have also uncovered British stone fortifications dating back to the brief period of British military occupation of Nanny Town in 1734–35 (Agorsah 1994, 170–74, 182). Gabino La Rosa Corzo (2003, 231–43 passim), employing similar techniques, has located many settlements in Cuba, including Todos Tenemos and Calunga in El Frijol Mountains. Such finds help to bring to life the events described, sometimes not with great precision, in historical records. They are helping gradually to separate myths from reality and to refine our understanding of the Maroon experience. The faces behind marronage were numerous. The iconography of great leaders includes François Makandal (Macandal), Jérôme Poteau, Polydor, Romaine la Prophetesse, Padre Jean and Boukman Dutty in Haiti; Françisque Fabulé, Grand-Papa and Nocachy in Guadeloupe; Pompée in French Guiana; Juan de Serras, Cudjoe (Kojo), Grandy Nanny, Three- Fingered Jack and Leonard Parkinson in Jamaica; Enriquillo, Diego Guzman, Juan Vaquero, Diego de Ocampo and Lemba in the Dominican Republic; Gaspar Yanga and Macute (Makute) in Mexico; Marcos Xiorro in Puerto Rico; Boni, Jolicoeur and Baron in Suriname; Joseph Chatoyer in St Vincent; Domingo Bioho, Domingo Padilla (Domingo Criollo) and Jerónimo in Colombia; Andresote (Andrés López del Rosario), José Leonardo Chirinos, Francisco Pirela, Miguel Jerónimo (Gerónimo, Guacamayo) and Guillermo Rivas (Ribas) in Venezuela; Zumbi in Brazil; and Alonso de Illescas in Ecuador. This study looks at how the runaways achieved initial freedom and sought to maintain it, and at the massive loss of life involved in doing so. They went through many trials and tribulations, but at the end of the slavery period quite a few of their settlements survived, and some demonstrated a remarkable degree of political, economic, social and cultural health. The
Page 2 and 3: Flight to Freedom
Page 4 and 5: Flight to Freedom African Runaways
Page 6 and 7: To my wife, Hilda, with all my love
Page 8 and 9: Contents List of Illustrations / ix
Page 10 and 11: Illustrations Zabeth / frontispiece
Page 12 and 13: Acknowledgements My research for th
Page 14 and 15: Introduction Slavery is the most pe
Page 16 and 17: Introduction 3 nialism. François D
Page 20 and 21: Introduction 7 study also looks at
Page 22 and 23: Introduction 9 Naturally, there wer
Page 24 and 25: Introduction 11 Maroons from their
Page 26 and 27: Introduction 13 what they perceive
Page 28 and 29: Introduction 15 ous other kinds of
Page 30 and 31: Introduction 17 violently against t
Page 32 and 33: Part 1 Ideological Bases of Marrona
Page 34 and 35: Chapter 1 Totalitarianism and Slave
Page 36 and 37: Totalitarianism and Slavery 23 Figu
Page 38 and 39: Totalitarianism and Slavery 25 When
Page 40 and 41: Totalitarianism and Slavery 27 and
Page 42 and 43: Totalitarianism and Slavery 29 grav
Page 44 and 45: Totalitarianism and Slavery 31 ensl
Page 46 and 47: Totalitarianism and Slavery 33 free
Page 48 and 49: Totalitarianism and Slavery 35 an o
Page 50 and 51: Totalitarianism and Slavery 37 flig
Page 52 and 53: Totalitarianism and Slavery 39 Virg
Page 54 and 55: Totalitarianism and Slavery 41 Robe
Page 56 and 57: Totalitarianism and Slavery 43 Then
Page 58 and 59: Totalitarianism and Slavery 45 Maro
Page 60 and 61: Totalitarianism and Slavery 47 Roch
Page 62 and 63: Totalitarianism and Slavery 49 plus
Page 64 and 65: Totalitarianism and Slavery 51 the
Page 66 and 67: Chapter 2 Forms of Marronage Petit
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Forms of Marronage 55 bondage. Flig
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Forms of Marronage 57 Esteban Deive
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Forms of Marronage 59 context of de
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Forms of Marronage 61 the birds and
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Forms of Marronage 63 Douglass, lik
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Forms of Marronage 65 per cent of t
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Forms of Marronage 67 their settlem
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Forms of Marronage 69 that pregnanc
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Forms of Marronage 71 tury, and the
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Forms of Marronage 73 found that mo
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Forms of Marronage 75 such a persis
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Forms of Marronage 77 Brathwaite 19
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Forms of Marronage 79 The weight of
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Forms of Marronage 81 In 1549 a sma
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Forms of Marronage 83 Of the non-Af
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Forms of Marronage 85 refer to the
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Forms of Marronage 87 of deserters,
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Part 2 Origins and Development of M
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Chapter 3 The Imperative of Freedom
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The Imperative of Freedom 93 ing th
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The Imperative of Freedom 95 Stedma
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The Imperative of Freedom 97 role a
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The Imperative of Freedom 99 Some o
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The Imperative of Freedom 101 and s
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The Imperative of Freedom 103 socie
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The Imperative of Freedom 105 310).
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The Imperative of Freedom 107 ferri
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Chapter 4 Establishment of Maroon C
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Establishment of Maroon Communities
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Figure 7. Jamaica: The Maroon phase
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Figure 8. Route of Miguel Peréz’
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Military Expeditions and Judicial T
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Figure 13. Domingos Jorge Velho and
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Figure 14. A Brazilian capitão do
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Part 3 Maroon Organization Freedom
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Chapter 6 Physical Organization of
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Figure 17. Palmares and vicinity. F
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Physical Organization of Maroon Com
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Figure 22. Locations of caves in Ja
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Figure 23. A Suriname Maroon attire
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Chapter 7 Maroon Government Structu
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Maroon Government 213 lence in thes
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Maroon Government 215 why this was
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Maroon Government 217 but, murder o
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Maroon Government 219 eral states,
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Maroon Government 221 In the Cofre
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Maroon Government 223 of a particul
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Maroon Government 225 395) advances
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Maroon Government 227 freedom was c
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Maroon Government 229 Generally, Ma
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Maroon Government 231 ever saw, who
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Maroon Government 235 “the slaveo
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Maroon Government 237 often contain
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Chapter 8 Maroon Economy Interdepen
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Maroon Economy 241 on plantations a
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Maroon Economy 243 Agriculture The
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Maroon Economy 245 displayed all th
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Maroon Economy 247 treaty that the
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Maroon Economy 249 varieties in the
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Maroon Economy 251 sion. Neverthele
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Maroon Economy 253 (1997, 86), Maro
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Maroon Economy 255 time-consuming p
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Maroon Economy 257 displaying desig
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Maroon Economy 259 of the mines for
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Maroon Economy 261 commercial inter
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Part 4 Accommodation or Revolution
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Chapter 9 Negotiations and Treaties
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Negotiations and Treaties 267 thirt
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Negotiations and Treaties 269 they
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Negotiations and Treaties 271 In hi
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Negotiations and Treaties 273 share
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Negotiations and Treaties 275 tions
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Negotiations and Treaties 277 more
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Negotiations and Treaties 279 some
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Negotiations and Treaties 281 and j
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Negotiations and Treaties 283 In 17
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Negotiations and Treaties 285 littl
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Negotiations and Treaties 287 We th
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Negotiations and Treaties 289 said
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Negotiations and Treaties 291 Palma
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Negotiations and Treaties 293 ment
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Chapter 10 Maroons and Revolutionar
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Maroons and Revolutionary Struggle
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Conclusion I paid my duty To live h
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Conclusion 325 that Maroon depredat
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Conclusion 327 scholars seem to bel
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Conclusion 329 overlooks the lethal
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Notes to pages 38-62 331 before ema
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Notes to pages 72-84 333 8. See als
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Notes to pages 108-125 335 11. See
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Notes to pages 146-164 337 4. Buckl
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Notes to pages 181-194 339 7. Fouch
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Notes to pages 213-224 341 the Whit
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Notes to pages 236-243 343 many of
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Notes to pages 254-272 345 18. On t
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Notes to pages 290-306 347 who, bec
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Bibliography Acosta Saignes, Miguel
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Bibliography 351 Bosnegersamenlevin
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Bibliography 353 Cohen, David and J
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Bibliography 355 Dookhan, Isaac. 19
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Bibliography 357 Antilles du XVII e
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Bibliography 359 Isichei, Elizabeth
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Bibliography 361 Laude, Jean. 1973.
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Bibliography 363 Memmi, Albert. 196
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Bibliography 365 Pérez de Ribas, A
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Bibliography 367 Rueda Mendez, Davi
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Bibliography 369 ———. 1995.
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Index abduction of enslaved persons
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Index 373 tion of, 79; firearms in,
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Index 375 freedom access to, for Bl
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Index 377 fishing and gathering, 24
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Index 379 government of, 218-19 mas
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Index 381 Toussaint Louverture, Fra
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