Hydraulic ram pumps and Sling Pumps

Key Factors for Sustainable Cost Recoverya) low reliability of the water supply;b) difficulties in reading the meters;c) the frequency with which users break meters or make illegal by-pass connections;d) high demands on administrative capacities (reading, billing, collecting, control, etc…);e) lack of familiarity with the concept in rural and low-income urban areas, lack of information, anda belief that water is unlimited.If properly reinforced, metering induces users to avoid water wastage, which will reduce long-termcosts or unaccounted water losses. Individual household meters are not only expensive to install, theyalso need to be read regularly and they make the administration more complex. Staff are needed toread meters, write bills and accept payments. Metering therefore requires administrative andmanagement capacity. The added cost of installing and operating meters, as well as billing andcollecting the money, may outweigh the benefits, notably in rural areas. A major constraint to userparticipation in piped systems with metered connections, is the high connection fee which wateragencies charge to individual households wishing to install a private tap. One way to alleviate thisproblem is to spread the connection fee over time, and include it in the monthly water rate.Block rates are rates metered by “blocks” that vary according to consumption levels. Apart from abasic rate, which is fixed at a point where it is affordable by the poor, consumers may be charged aprice proportionate to the volume consumed, with ranges or “blocks” (from 0 to 10 m 3 ; from 10 to 20m 3 , etc.). It is sometimes argued that rates for each block should decline at higher rates of consumptionbecause of possible economies of scale. It is doubtful, however, that there are significant economies ofscale on a per consumer basis. Considering the growth in services needed in developing countries, themost appropriate policy is an increasing block structure, with progressively increasing tariffs.Advantages and disadvantages of metered ratesConditions for application Advantages DisadvantagesShould have sufficient demandand willingness to pay for houseconnections. Good managementcapacity is needed as well asefficiency to ensure: a) costeffectivenessand consumersatisfaction; b) efficientmaintenance and leakagecontrol." Charges reflect volume of waterconsumed" Helps to reduce the consumptionof water" Makes it possible for poor peopleto access a minimum level ofwater consumption" Demand can be regulated, andwater resources conserved, byuse of progressive rates" Only one parameter: cost per m 3" Accounting made easier" Raises cost of service due to higheroverheads for meter reading,billing, collecting payments, policingdelinquency" Feasible, if reliable water supply" Difficult to define what is theminimum level of waterconsumption for poor people" Users frequently break meters ormake illegal by-pass connections" Meters need maintenance" Long delays in paymentSource: Adapted from Evans (1992)• Mixed system ratesHouse connections together with standpostsAnother option to cover costs is to combine private paid connections with free public standposts.When there are enough private connections it becomes possible to finance the cost of public taps forthe lowest income groups from a surplus of the rates paid by the private users. However, householdswhich can afford to take a house connection do not always do so, when there are enough freestandposts. This system should be accompanied by sensitisation and information campaigns promotingprivate tap connections.29