Review and Critical Analysis of International UHI Studies

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These issues have meant that in some areas such as pavements and urban greening, policy development is in its infancy compared to cool roofs which appears to be the most developed. 4.4.3 Policy/Strategic Assessment Literature Review There are 24 references which discuss the use of policy and strategy as a vehicle to enforce UHI mitigation [025, 027, 034, 040, 045, 047, 060, 061, 066, 071, 073, 074, 076, 081, 093, 101, 108, 201, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214 ,215]. Of these just under 30% emanate from LBNL [025,027,034,061,066,071,201] and over 60% are studies focusing on North America [025, 027, 034, 061, 066, 071, 073, 074, 076, 081, 093, 101, 201, 212, 213]. Thus here we present the North American efforts and lessons separate from the examples from the rest of the world. 15 studies examine the policy in North America and strategy efforts. The studies indicate a strong drive across much of the stakeholder value chain with respect to addressing the UHI mitigation. It is apparent that there have been a range of initiatives from voluntary (in the form of demonstration projects) through to formal policy – in the form of codes and standards and often the implementation of voluntary standards has resulted in the adoption of more formal mandatory standards. A study conducted by LBNL in 1995 highlights the policy steps that have to be taken in order to implement such mitigation measures and uses cool surfaces (roofs and pavements) and shade tree programs as examples. It describes how a comprehensive program requires seven steps outlined in [061]: i) Creating test procedures, ratings and labels for cool materials: this seeks to rate different paints and surface materials under a standard set of centrally controlled tests. This has helped to separate both the high from low grade materials but also drive the market towards researching and delivering high standard products that perform well in the ratings. This has been successful in the US as many manufacturers have invested heavily in achieving the ‘cool status’ for example: through the Energy Star for Roofing Products; ii) Increasing information in the market by generating a cool materials central database system available to all the UHI influential value chain (e.g. from architects to contractors) – working example: the non‐profit organization Cool Roofs Rating Council (CRRC) database; iii) Integration of cool roofs and shade trees into building energy performance standards; in the US this has successfully been achieved in setting minimum requirements for commercial and residential buildings through the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air‐Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE); iv) Offering utility rebates to incentivize meeting or exceeding the performance standards; v) Establishing well grounded information channels to distribute information at the primary level e.g. building owners; vi) Public facility demonstrations (leading by example from the top) – throughout the US local governments have implemented or set in place demonstration and adaptation projects to promote the benefits of cool materials and other mitigation initiatives (e.g. tree planting programs); and vii) Creating policies for the procurement of cool roofing materials by the governments from national to local level. Review and Critical Analysis of International UHI Studies Page 43
Recent steps taken in cities in the warm half of the US towards the integration of the cool communities strategies have been to incorporate cool roofs and pavements and green roofs and urban green areas into Building Energy Codes, Green Building Programs and Utility Rebate/ Credit and Incentive Schemes. Policy details for each mitigation measure are listed below: North American Building Energy Codes for Cool Roofs � ASHRAE is the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air‐Conditioning Engineers and they have developed standards for: cool materials for low sloped roofs on non‐residential buildings (90.1‐2007, 90.1‐2004, 90.1‐2001, 90.2‐2004); they offer credits for cool materials for all roofs on non‐residential and residential buildings in some US climates. � The 2003 International Energy Conservation Code (IECC) is a national model code which many States use as a basis for developing their own codes and standards. The IECC is concerned with energy conservation through efficiency in envelope design, mechanical systems, lighting systems and the use of new materials and techniques. � Energy Star is a joint project between the US Department of Energy (DOE) and the US Environment Protection Agency (EPA) which demands standards on solar reflectance for low and steep sloped roofs [201]. � The Cool Roof Rating Council (CRRC) is involved in labelling cool roof properties as to their reflectivity and is recognized as a reference point across the US [201]. � 2008 & 2005 California Title 24 Standards, set by the State of California, stipulate cool materials for all roofs on non‐residential and residential buildings in some California climates [201]. � Energy Conservation Codes in Chicago prescribe materials with minimum solar reflectance and thermal emittance [201]. � 2004 Florida Building Code, follows the ASHRAE standards and prescribes cool materials for roofs on non residential buildings North American Green Building Programs for Cool Roofs � The US Green Buildings Council (USGBC) run the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Green Building Rating System which acts as a benchmark for building standards and can be used to provide credits for buildings using cool roofs through its Sustainable Sites Credit [201]. The USGBC is has a vast membership across federal, local and state government. � The Green Building Initiative’s Green Globes® provides a building assessment based on the building’s environmental performance and sustainability, a similar program is also followed in Canada on all federal buildings called Go Green and Go Green Plus. North American Utility Rebate/ Credit and Incentive Schemes for Cool Roofs � Hawaii, cool roof credits adopted in three counties for commercial and high‐rise residential buildings, based on ASHRAE � Sacramento Municipal Utility District (SMUD) offers rebates for cools roofs through the use of Energy Star products [076]. � Chicago offers grants for green and cool roof projects [076]. Review and Critical Analysis of International UHI Studies Page 44
Page 1 and 2:
Assessment of International Urban H
Page 3 and 4: Comments iii Bibliographic Report a
Page 5 and 6: List of Acronyms and Abbreviations
Page 7 and 8: TABLE OF CONTENTS vii Bibliographic
Page 9 and 10: ix Bibliographic Report and Study o
Page 11 and 12: xi Bibliographic Report and Study o
Page 13 and 14: The mitigation technologies were fo
Page 15 and 16: a forward path; provides an economi
Page 17 and 18: 2.1.1 Population Size/Density Popul
Page 19 and 20: workday effect and weekends. Studie
Page 21 and 22: Some UHI impacts are positive such
Page 23 and 24: correlation with vehicles and traff
Page 25 and 26: 2.2.4 Peak Power Peak power describ
Page 27 and 28: temperature and climate, thus chang
Page 29 and 30: 3 QUANTITATIVE MODELING & SIMULATIO
Page 31 and 32: The following papers use a number o
Page 33 and 34: Another study in Japan simulated ai
Page 35 and 36: This paper applied a model to calcu
Page 37 and 38: 3.2 Simulations of UHI 3.2.1 Introd
Page 39 and 40: A study in France sought to find ou
Page 41 and 42: Traffic flow was calculated using c
Page 43 and 44: Implementation Issues 4 North & Asi
Page 45 and 46: These studies were founded primaril
Page 47 and 48: (humidification and heat sink insta
Page 49 and 50: emissions and the tree topology rel
Page 51 and 52: At a City scale one study focuses o
Page 53: This section reports the findings f
Page 57 and 58: � Most US States encourage tree p
Page 59 and 60: o 29 German cities offer subsidies
Page 61 and 62: 4.5.1 Review for Cool Roofs: 4.5.1.
Page 63 and 64: the global emitted CO2 offset poten
Page 65 and 66: standards to promote the cool roofs
Page 67 and 68: The expected savings generated in c
Page 69 and 70: � The degree to which the change
Page 71 and 72: enefits are complex to measure dire
Page 73 and 74: controls of the active cooling/heat
Page 75 and 76: temperature increases due to paveme
Page 77 and 78: curb‐side planting. Data gatherin
Page 79 and 80: location, orientation, growth/morta
Page 81 and 82: seasons, climate types, etc. Furthe
Page 83 and 84: the summer than the winter, thus ra
Page 85 and 86: A study in Japan tested the effect
Page 87 and 88: One US study written in 1998 seeks
Page 89 and 90: This section reports the findings f
Page 91 and 92: planning approach. Medium resolutio
Page 93 and 94: Urban design and planning is a comp
Page 95 and 96: 5 CRITICAL REVIEW OF UHI COUNTERMEA
Page 97 and 98: � Implementation Issues: The esti
Page 99 and 100: savings are used over solutions tha
Page 101 and 102: � 10.5 MtCO2 emissions per year f
Page 103 and 104: � Preparation: Substantial prepar
Page 105 and 106:
5.3.3 Green Roofs and Urban Green A
Page 107 and 108:
5.4 Economic Review The magnitude o
Page 109 and 110:
5.5 Opportunities for Scale Up (Bar
Page 111 and 112:
technology, it evaluates the availa
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Availability: the level and type of
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integration would make them accepta
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Awareness: Planners and designers w
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would seek to incentivize UHI count
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homeowner for example to choose whe
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Planning issues for new builds, the
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5.6.4 Energy Efficiency Measures Pl
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� Political will - The government
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not to create dedicated policy vehi
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� When developing costing analyse
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7 GLOBAL SCIENTIFIC PANEL 7.1 Intro
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an understanding of planning policy
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Role Name Institution Country of Or
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Role Name Institution Country of Or
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sustainable architecture. He is an
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energy buildings, natural and mixed
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Name: Hashem Akbari Current Positio
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momentum in cities are measured and
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Ms MacDonald was formerly Director
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Name: Dr Dale Quattrochi Current Po
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Name: Joe Huang Current Position: L
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State University. He is former Pres
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Bank for Reconstruction and Develop
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planners/designers are equipped wit
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Paper Ref Title of Paper Author Ins
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