Review and Critical Analysis of International UHI Studies

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� Technical: this addresses technical barriers and practical implementation issues. This could be looking for solutions to effectively enforce a mitigation strategy given practical constraints in the urban environment. � Institutional: this addresses barriers faced due to initiatives/policies dictated from either/both governmental and non‐governmental institutions; � Legal: these are barriers of the legal nature that could act to restrict or inhibit mitigation strategies; � Economic: financial barriers that would act to restrict or inhibit mitigation strategies. This section reports the findings from UHI studies that address the above issues. Addressing the implementation of individual mitigation technologies at smaller scales have been addressed to some degree in the technology section. This section therefore, in part re‐iterates some key implementation issues that can have impact from the local to global scale. The aim is to report findings as the literature addresses these implementation issues. Furthermore, it reports suggested solutions/outcomes that have evolved in trying to overcome some of these barriers. 4.6.2 Implementation Issues Summary of Literature and Findings Limited studies explicitly examined the implementation issues faced in mitigating UHIs – of the studies that did, the focus was predominantly on the US and Japan. The US focus was in overcoming barriers to ensure mass market uptake of the cool community strategies – this included addressing issues pertaining to market understanding of countermeasure performance, examining how to incentivize adopting cool materials in new builds, and overcoming obstacles in the building standards. The US examples demonstrated that some implementation issues were overcome by developing voluntary schemes/programs that often developed mass following and developed into mandatory regulation. The Japanese experience demonstrates the need to transist from research to policy implementation and adopt more long‐term mass scale implementation measures – due to the small‐scale measures not yielding expected results in performance and there being no proof of scale. This evidence showed that mass implementation, data collection and demonstration would help overcome some of these barriers and thus serve as a model to rapidly urbanizing areas throughout Asia. The studies also suggested that the key to overcoming implementation issues for UHI mitigation strategies relies upon the ability to demonstrate synergies and links with other areas of the urban climate and climate change at the global scale. These studies however, provided little coverage of issues faced at the technical, economic and legal level. 4.6.3 Implementation Issues Literature Review Only four studies attempted to address (to varying degrees) the implementation issues faced in mitigating the Urban Heat Islands [027, 047, 053, 060]. Three of these studies focus on the US experience [027, 053, 060] and only one focuses on Japan [047]. Review and Critical Analysis of International UHI Studies Page 75
One US study written in 1998 seeks to identify the barriers that must be overcome in order to ensure mass market uptake of cool community’s strategies (focus on cool materials, shade trees and demonstration strategies) [027] – naturally some of these barriers have been overcome to varying degrees through the evolution and maturing of technology, policy and strategy – some examples from the literature are presented. For cool roofing/paving materials /shade trees the following barriers have been identified [027, 053, 060]: � Rating and Testing: lack of information from manufacturers to the market on the performance of the products – this yields product differentiation issues for the consumers. Such issues can be dealt with through the use of industry approved test measures (for the solar reflectance and thermal emittance) and product labeling and/or information database – a working example is the Cool Roof Rating Council database; � Cool Materials in New Builds: No incentive for builders to incorporate cool roofs into new builds due to no recognition of energy performance merits of cool roofs by the codes – in the US the American Society for Heating Refrigeration and Air‐conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) included credits pertaining to cool roofs; � Low‐Emitting Trees: trees produce biogenic emissions which are precursors to smog. It is therefore important that groups looking for mass plantation to mitigate the UHI select the lowest emitting trees. Research in the US is being conducted to categorize the various species for their relative merits. A working example in the US is research conducted at the university level to quantify and catalogue the ozone‐forming potential (OFP) of various tree species also developed by the USDA Forest Service and integrated in the STRATUM tree data inventory tool [077]. In the US there have also been significant efforts by government departments (Department of Energy and Department of Defense) to set‐up demonstration projects on their facilities to illustrate the potential energy savings associated with mass strategic shade tree plantation. � Building Performance Standards (Shade Trees): difficulty in the integration of energy credits for shade trees despite numerous studies proving their relative energy saving and smog reducing credentials – thus not providing incentive to building owners and designers to integrate trees and strategically locate them. It has been suggested that local/state codes and ordinances could be used to promote planting of shade trees ‐ some states in the US have sought to implement mass tree planting programs through the State Implementation Plans (SIPs) to meet clean air standards. A Japanese study suggests that there needs to be a rapid transition from research to policy implementation. It highlights that there is a growing need to begin to adopt more long‐term mass scale implementation measures as the short‐term, small scale measures currently implemented haven’t necessarily yielded the results hoped for both in terms of performance and in‐terms of proof of scale. The mass implementation, data collection and demonstration should help overcome some of these barriers and thus serve as model areas in Japan and rapidly urbanizing cities throughout Asia [047]. A US study suggests that the future prospects of implementation of UHI mitigation strategies rely upon: ability to demonstrate synergies with other areas of the urban climate; climate changes at the global scale – as these often have magnified effects upon the urban environments; Review and Critical Analysis of International UHI Studies Page 76
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Assessment of International Urban H
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Comments iii Bibliographic Report a
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List of Acronyms and Abbreviations
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TABLE OF CONTENTS vii Bibliographic
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ix Bibliographic Report and Study o
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xi Bibliographic Report and Study o
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The mitigation technologies were fo
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a forward path; provides an economi
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2.1.1 Population Size/Density Popul
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workday effect and weekends. Studie
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Some UHI impacts are positive such
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correlation with vehicles and traff
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2.2.4 Peak Power Peak power describ
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temperature and climate, thus chang
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3 QUANTITATIVE MODELING & SIMULATIO
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The following papers use a number o
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Another study in Japan simulated ai
Page 35 and 36: This paper applied a model to calcu
Page 37 and 38: 3.2 Simulations of UHI 3.2.1 Introd
Page 39 and 40: A study in France sought to find ou
Page 41 and 42: Traffic flow was calculated using c
Page 43 and 44: Implementation Issues 4 North & Asi
Page 45 and 46: These studies were founded primaril
Page 47 and 48: (humidification and heat sink insta
Page 49 and 50: emissions and the tree topology rel
Page 51 and 52: At a City scale one study focuses o
Page 53 and 54: This section reports the findings f
Page 55 and 56: Recent steps taken in cities in the
Page 57 and 58: � Most US States encourage tree p
Page 59 and 60: o 29 German cities offer subsidies
Page 61 and 62: 4.5.1 Review for Cool Roofs: 4.5.1.
Page 63 and 64: the global emitted CO2 offset poten
Page 65 and 66: standards to promote the cool roofs
Page 67 and 68: The expected savings generated in c
Page 69 and 70: � The degree to which the change
Page 71 and 72: enefits are complex to measure dire
Page 73 and 74: controls of the active cooling/heat
Page 75 and 76: temperature increases due to paveme
Page 77 and 78: curb‐side planting. Data gatherin
Page 79 and 80: location, orientation, growth/morta
Page 81 and 82: seasons, climate types, etc. Furthe
Page 83 and 84: the summer than the winter, thus ra
Page 85: A study in Japan tested the effect
Page 89 and 90: This section reports the findings f
Page 91 and 92: planning approach. Medium resolutio
Page 93 and 94: Urban design and planning is a comp
Page 95 and 96: 5 CRITICAL REVIEW OF UHI COUNTERMEA
Page 97 and 98: � Implementation Issues: The esti
Page 99 and 100: savings are used over solutions tha
Page 101 and 102: � 10.5 MtCO2 emissions per year f
Page 103 and 104: � Preparation: Substantial prepar
Page 105 and 106: 5.3.3 Green Roofs and Urban Green A
Page 107 and 108: 5.4 Economic Review The magnitude o
Page 109 and 110: 5.5 Opportunities for Scale Up (Bar
Page 111 and 112: technology, it evaluates the availa
Page 113 and 114: Availability: the level and type of
Page 115 and 116: integration would make them accepta
Page 117 and 118: Awareness: Planners and designers w
Page 119 and 120: would seek to incentivize UHI count
Page 121 and 122: homeowner for example to choose whe
Page 123 and 124: Planning issues for new builds, the
Page 125 and 126: 5.6.4 Energy Efficiency Measures Pl
Page 127 and 128: � Political will - The government
Page 129 and 130: not to create dedicated policy vehi
Page 131 and 132: � When developing costing analyse
Page 133 and 134: 7 GLOBAL SCIENTIFIC PANEL 7.1 Intro
Page 135 and 136: an understanding of planning policy
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Role Name Institution Country of Or
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Role Name Institution Country of Or
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sustainable architecture. He is an
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energy buildings, natural and mixed
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Name: Hashem Akbari Current Positio
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momentum in cities are measured and
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Ms MacDonald was formerly Director
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Name: Dr Dale Quattrochi Current Po
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Name: Joe Huang Current Position: L
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State University. He is former Pres
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Bank for Reconstruction and Develop
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planners/designers are equipped wit
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Paper Ref Title of Paper Author Ins
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