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the minister of finance, the energetic and capable Witte(1849-1915), who had risen from a junior post on aprovincial railway, was at the same time minister oftransport, commerce, industry and, to a considerableextent, labour.The advance in Russian economic development wasvery striking, but it was, as it had always been, swaddledwith bureaucratic strait-lacing. The whole atmospherestunted the growth of a strong, independent industrialand mercantile class. That class did in fact owe muchto the state, but it was mainly conscious of all the shortcomingsof bureaucracy and tsarism, linked as it stillwas to a large extent with its historic but now rapidlydeclining partner, the landowners, and imbued with amilitary spirit of a kind that did not work in harnesswith modern capitalism. As one of the leading industrialpapers put it (1901): " It is time to realize that Europeanindustry cannot grow in a climate of almost universalilliteracy and ignorance and almost complete absence ofeconomic independence. It is time to realize that thecomplex and delicate mechanism of industrial developmentcannot be administered from one single centre"[St Petersburg].If conservative opinion was thus critical of governmentand administration, liberal and socialist opinion wasviolently antagonistic. The 1905 Revolution challengednot only the working of tsarism but its essential bases.Russia was indeed one of the great states of the world,great in the capacities of her peoples and the magnitudeof her resources. These capacities and these resourceshad been given far too little scope or been far too littleutilized. The Russian state as it had developed during thecourse of four centuries, despite great achievements, wasstill terribly weakened by corruption, arbitrariness, andinefficiency, and the element of force—however necessaryan ingredient in any state—stood out only too nakedly.The conditions of the twentieth-century world demandeda radical transformation of government, if not a radicaldiminution of state power. In such an empire of sucha size any profound and rapid transformation could notfail to be of terrifying complexity and acuteness, if not121
inevitably a full-scale revolution without the impact ofthe First World War. The words attributed to Witteat the time of the 1905 Revolution should not be forgotten(though they are not an adequate defence of tsarism) :"The world should be surprised that we have anyGovernment in Russia, not that we have an imperfectGovernment. With many nationalities, many languagesand a nation largely illiterate, the marvel is that thecountry can be held together even by autocracy.Remember one thing: if the Tsar's Government falls,you will see absolute chaos in Russia, and it will bemany a long year before you will see another Governmentable to control the mixture that makes up the Russiannation.''122
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UNIVERSALLIBRARYOU_214617UNIVERSALL
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SURVEYOFRUSSIAN HISTORYbyB. H. SUMN
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CHAPTERI. THE FRONTIERCONTENTS1. TY
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MAPS1. THE U.S.S.R. (WESTERN PORTIO
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Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, and
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MAP IU.S.S.R. (WESTERN PORTION)West
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half-Russian), the Transcaucasian r
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honey, and wax provided essentials
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called podzol soils, grey sands and
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(I)ST JOHN THE BAPTIST, YAROSLAVL,
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movement of game and fur-bearing an
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By the sixteenth century the scatte
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other natural conditions made agric
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population were relatively free pea
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similar, and for centuries they had
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merchant-adventurers and sea-captai
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Byzantium or eastward into the step
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and external struggles, especially
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and opened the vista of the Volga a
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social conditions in Poland fomente
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followed slowly by the plough, into
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frontier region was less all-pervad
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For long a certain degree of mobili
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gone down river far away south into
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elected but appointed by the war mi
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Cossacks, 'men of service' settled
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sites. Some settled in the old Sibe
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(I)PETER THE GREAT, 1672-1725From t
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contrary it is necessary that there
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(according to the old Russian calen
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even a member of it after 1923. He
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headed first by the moderate libera
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words, "the regime of the dictators
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"the Supreme, Autocratic power belo
Page 79 and 80: was spoken of as a dress rehearsal.
Page 81 and 82: The bureaucracy meant the governmen
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Page 87 and 88: functions and together with the pol
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Page 91 and 92: his eldest son or, failing sons, to
Page 93 and 94: and then killed, as being the rally
Page 95 and 96: officers, but they were educated th
Page 97 and 98: The Byzantine inheritance is more d
Page 99 and 100: the necessity for unfettered autocr
Page 101 and 102: manorial administration of the prin
Page 103 and 104: the first concern of tsarism and in
Page 105 and 106: Ivan was a man who did not take ris
Page 107 and 108: extinguished, largely because after
Page 109 and 110: een broken down during the two prev
Page 111 and 112: Similarly, the council of magnates
Page 113 and 114: portion of his own handiwork in fra
Page 115 and 116: On the other hand, they could not u
Page 117 and 118: eigned 1801-25) was part of his gen
Page 119 and 120: particularly their generals-adjutan
Page 121 and 122: pleading of which might excite publ
Page 123 and 124: 1793, 1795; Finland, 1721, 1743, 18
Page 125 and 126: producer and trader in his realm. T
Page 127 and 128: instituted (1804) a regularly organ
Page 129: of agriculture, took on a new form
Page 133 and 134: at a tempo unknown in the modern hi
Page 135 and 136: election is usually in effect contr
Page 137 and 138: 'and sown grasses, even though cere
Page 139 and 140: the two had reached most dangerous
Page 141 and 142: [revolutionary propaganda]," a peas
Page 143 and 144: institutions were also encouraged,
Page 145 and 146: though it had been considerably imp
Page 147 and 148: (iv) Emancipation of the peasants,
Page 149 and 150: three times deferred or in part can
Page 151 and 152: in the eighties. It is no wonder th
Page 153 and 154: The edict of 1762 did not in fact r
Page 155 and 156: itterly resented. Marriage required
Page 157 and 158: peoples remained with their own cus
Page 159 and 160: These last two classes were not fre
Page 161 and 162: not offer such advantages in the wa
Page 163 and 164: Direct taxation of various kinds, b
Page 165 and 166: members of the commune regulated in
Page 167 and 168: organization continued for long to
Page 169 and 170: The commune or subdivisions of it,
Page 171 and 172: the peasantry and of the social his
Page 173 and 174: in composition, and one of Razin's
Page 175 and 176: from St Petersburg to impose a sett
Page 177 and 178: If need be the reigning monarch was
Page 179 and 180: leaving a chain of fires, but witho
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ST DMITRI, VLADIMIR, 1193-97(a)DYAK
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some support from across the fronti
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traditions and the past, may contri
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and their retainers, but there was
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Becket until Nikon, the Patriarch o
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the peasantry, some of which derive
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the west the Lithuanians—the last
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close and far-reaching as the monas
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" I , John, am tsar and priest, up
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the fact that about fourteen per ce
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though in fact they were a return t
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accentuated their disunion and dimi
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he abolished the patriarchate and r
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patriarchate. Disendowment and dise
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during the partition period (1772-1
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the German Blitzkrieg were promptly
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half Russian or Lithuanian. In this
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The state language (to some extent
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Sigismund III of Poland, on the cre
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in the War of the Polish Succession
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earlier in secret conclave with her
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purveyor of cosmopolitan enlightenm
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under his control the grand-duchy o
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continuously against all his Russia
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and could not be understood by Euro
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The peasantry took little part in t
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3. The Ukrainian QuestionThe major
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It is quite true that Russian histo
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pp. 49-50 and note); but they were
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The main reason why the struggle fo
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for the most part their distinctive
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though divided in their attitude to
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For some ten years Ukrainian Commun
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of all Slav and freedom-loving nati
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Empire (see pp. 178-179), but conne
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These generally conservative direct
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Prior to the Crimean War the Slavop
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and the last a great deal, to pansl
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and her liberation from Turkey. A g
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than Buda-Pest or Vienna. Anti-Germ
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Finns, for about seven centuries wi
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Lenin, ceased to be the capital sin
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y the Red Army, but Estonia, Latvia
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towards the Allies were engendered,
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conquest of Finland by the Swedes;
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Half a century after Ivan the Great
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all Swedes—as has already been ex
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had he succeeded in rallying the ma
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the learning and culture of enlight
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Sweden, and Finland, outside direct
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Swedish navy had reasserted itself
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evolution and Finland, to which the
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was a triumph of French diplomacy,
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Straits become a perpetual plague-s
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diplomatic pressure by Russia. Even
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in St Petersburg of a complete brea
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herself and Turkey alone. Now she a
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the congress the Russian and Britis
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an eventual annexation by her of Bo
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uncoiled, the new regime in Russia
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least definitely hostile. For this
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Armenia and Azerbaidzhan (see map i
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Russians and even imposed a conside
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A new Georgian literature and cultu
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Moscow. A month earlier Georgia had
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War, and the triumph, in company wi
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eing in direct relations with the U
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In that year Far Eastern affairs we
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great, but she still remained in po
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new Soviet state was so exhausted a
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there had previously taken place a
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notable withdrawal, but the governm
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CHAPTER VIITHE WEST1. Russia and Eu
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(I)THE EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY URALSBogo
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the specifically Russian achievemen
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the West. Such centres were, howeve
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ationalist and scientific thought,
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ight had I," cries Kropotkin in his
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or apathy by the peasants, and the
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had been different again. There had
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messenger sent on a sudden by God t
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mainly because Catholics were synon
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In ' the western lands ' printing,
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(b. 1643, banished to the Arctic 16
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went off as a member of 'the great
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science. He succeeded posthumously
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variable and the use of Russian as
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or (as for instance Osterman in the
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the middle of the eighteenth centur
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to the Academy of Sciences, and he
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from England and Germany. Russian m
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down to the serf's hut. From small
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operating in Russia: a 'free labour
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and by a few large-scale British-Ru
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addition to extremely low purchasin
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cent, was held by foreigners, as co
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of Bastiat and Cobden. There follow
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of Western Art one of the finest co
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imperialism in the Middle and Far E
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section of the town-dwellers, espec
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extent the commune. This helps to a
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pay had been made to it, and it was
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stood for Western democracy of a li
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than any since that of 1891, capped
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(4) There were just enough speciali
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CoalIron ore . . . .Pig-iron . . .
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including agriculture, all transpor
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commitments have been incurred than
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explicitly emphazised as a most imp
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Total populationUrban .Rural .19391
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policy pursued in the ten years bef
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often as not she was one of the dec
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Russia, as the Crimean War gave amp
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country by looting. The Russian arm
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illustrated by the Bavarian success
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the Napoleonic period hgr eastern i
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humbling of their pride and by the
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Niemen. Twelve weeks later Napoleon
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to the invader. He was torn to the
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of European peace might be formed,
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and the French, followed by war wit
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could to rebuild the rampart, to re
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of the Holy Alliance. There were, i
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Europe. Left to himself he would sw
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with the contrast in their own case
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agreed that Russia could not fight,
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Ferdinand, in Sarajevo, the capital
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The isolation of Russia after the c
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only if Germany were not the attack
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e disturbed as to the solidity of t
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championship of the Polish cause we
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and giving it a pro-French orientat
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evivified and extended the alliance
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powers" was not directly affected b
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which was one main reason for the p
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against her, had become impracticab
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against Western imperialism. The el
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fear drove both to combine, loosely
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CHRONOLOGICAL TABLEDates, as elsewh
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1768-721767-8176417621756-631755175
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1425-62141014081406-814041399139713
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NOTE ON BOOKSTHE following list of
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Times to the Death of Dostoevsky (1
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Sir Bernard Pares, The Fall of the
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INDEXFor Russian foreign relations
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Factory workers: see Industrial dev
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Monasteries: 27, 48, 177-8, 182-4,1
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Skdbelev: 429.Slaves and slavery: 2
show all

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