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now composed of ' conscience-stricken' gentry and ' menof mixed class' imbued with ' nihilism' and social revolutionarypopulism. Hence the government soon retreatedtowards the practices of Nicholas I. A prolonged, and attimes savage, struggle was waged with the student youth,especially after the murder of Alexander II in 1881.Secondary education also became a battleground. Primaryeducation was slowly extended from 1864, with a threeyearcourse and Russian compulsory as the means ofinstruction; but the special attention of the governmentwas given to church schools, most of which were of a verylow standard.The 1905 Revolution set free the universities, thoughthere was reaction again from 1911. At long last theimmense problem of illiteracy was recognized as a leadingissue. Strenuous opposition, above all from the supportersof the church schools, prevented the Duma fromcarrying into effect its full projects, which aimed atslowly instituting compulsory primary'education; butconsiderable progress was made, and for the first timethe central government assigned comparatively large sumsto primary education.Since the reforms of Alexander II much had beendone in education, particularly through the provincialand district councils (zemstva) and in higher specializededucation, even despite the reaction under Alexander IIIand Nicholas II. In 1881 there were 1,300,000 pupilsin elementary schools, and 9,300 university students;by 1914 the corresponding figures were over 7,000,000and 35,5oo. 1 Yet illiteracy remained very widespread,especially among women and in Asiatic Russia. Accordingto the most favourable calculations over forty percent, of those over 10 were literate in 1914; accordingto less favourable figures only about twenty-eight percent. In addition, the quality of education was very1These figures exclude Poland and Finland, but include the Balticprovinces, where education was much more extended than in Russiaproper. They also include the church primary schools, mostly of a verylow standard. Of the university students, 70 per cent, were classed in1880 as belonging to families of the gentry, officials, or clergy, 46 per cent,in 1914. Besides the 35,500 students in the state universities in 1914,there were about 40,000 students in other higher educational institutions.339