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there now flowed a rivulet of secular western literature,largely antiquated, but also including geographical andother utilitarian works, such as Mercator.Polish cultural influences were also operative indirectlythrough the close relations established between Moscowand Kiev as a result of the political and social struggles ofthe Ukraine against Poland, which culminated in thecession of Kiev and Little Russia by Poland to Muscovyin 1667 (see pp. 225-227). Many of the Ukrainians,both ecclesiastics and laymen, were well acquainted withJesuit education and the culture of the Polish gentry;for them the defence of Orthodoxy against Catholicismand the Uniat church required the use of their enemy'sarmoury.Thus, the ambitious, western-educated metropolitanof Kiev, Peter Mogila (b. 1596, d. 1647), a Moldaviannobleman by birth, who played an outstanding part inthe history of the Polish Ukraine, founded in 1631 theKiev academy "for the teaching of the free sciences in theGreek, Slavonic, and Latin tongues." This becamethe intellectual centre of the Ukraine, and it soon sent anumber of learned Ukrainian ecclesiastics to Muscovy,where they initiated a cultural reformation.In the Ukraine education was both more advancedand much more organized than in Muscovy. Under theinfluence of the Kiev academy, which continued toflourish well into the eighteenth century as a centre bothof lay and ecclesiastical education, other colleges werefounded, notably in Kharkov (1731), and in the left-bankUkraine a system of parochial schools became fairlywidely spread. This higher standard largely explainsthe prominence of Ukrainians in government, church, andcultural activities in eighteenth-century Russia.Meanwhile, in the second half of the seventeenthcentury, the Ukrainian, and to a lesser extent the directPolish, cultural, and religious influences had a fourfoldeffect on Muscovy. They brought home the lack ofeducation, even among the clergy; they broadened whateducation there was, especially through emphasis on Latin;they invigorated religious life by emphasis on preaching;they spread in some degree western secular literature.331