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policy pursued in the ten years before 1941, but theywere not by then a substitute for the Ukraine, Moscowand Leningrad.Another feature of the second and third five-year plansthat has proved of the utmost importance during thewar is the increasing tendency towards autarky. Thishas been lauded by Soviet leaders since 1932 as necessaryon grounds of defence, but not with the express objectof cutting off the U.S.S.R. from foreign countries. Theresult has been that the very heavy dependence of pre-1917 Russia upon the outside world for finished goods,much raw material (e.g. rubber, non-ferrous metals,colonial goods) and shipping had disappeared by 1940.Along with the great expansion of industries alreadyexistent before 1917 there has been an even greaterexpansion in the output of what previously had not beenproduced at all or only in very small quantities. Tennew branches of industry of major importance havebeen built up with such ruthless energy that by 1940they were supplying the bulk, in some cases the whole,of Soviet consumption: rubber (mainly synthetic),chemicals, artificial manures, agricultural machinery,lorries and automobiles, electrical equipment, precisioninstruments, machine tools, aluminium, non-ferrousmetals. In addition, the Red Army was self-sufficient inaircraft, tanks, guns and munitions.It is true that there were dangerous bottle-necks andthat Soviet industry was still dependent in 1940 on certainvital imports, but for the most part in small amountsand to a lesser degree than the industry of any othercountry. It was specially significant that the concentrationon machine tools and machinery, fostered bysystematic encouragement of inventions, was diminishingdependence on foreign imports and technical assistancein the replacement or extension of high-grade equipment.Finally, the overriding feature of Soviet planningand the revolution in industry has come to be, not merelythe predominant emphasis given to heavy industry andcapital goods as against consumers' goods, but the preoccupationwith defence needs. This was much less trueof the first period of total planning. In 1933, according