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own admiralty differed and did on one occasion send asquadron through.In any case, Unkiar-Skelessi was a resounding successfor Russia. She had not only given a single-handed andsensational set-back to Mehemet Ali (though it provedonly temporary). She was for the time being in theposition for which she was always striving and whichshe never again attained: " the treaty," Nesselrode wrote,"will justify, if occasion requires, the presence andemployment of our forces and will allow us to placeourselves again, before any others and in superiorstrength, in the theatre of events in such a manner asto remain always masters of the situation, whether oneadmits the maintenance of the Ottoman empire aspossible or its dissolution as in the end inevitable.''In the face of British and French opposition it provedimpossible for the Russians to remain thus 'masters ofthe situation' for more than a few years. When thesecond Mehemet Ali crisis came to a head in 1839Nicholas I realized that he could not repeat his singlehandedintervention and settlement of the Straitsquestion. He swerved round to the policy of dividingGreat Britain from France and joining with the formerand Austria in supporting the sultan against MehemetAli. He knew that Unkiar-Skelessi was dead and in thecircumstances was well enough pleased to substitute forit the London convention of 1840, next year acceded toby France. Thereby, foreign warships, with certainminor exceptions, were banned from both the Straitswhile Turkey was at peace: Russia could not get toConstantinople or the Mediterranean; the other powerscould not get to Constantinople or the Black Sea.The London convention was a milestone in the historyof the Straits. For the first time they were regulated byinternational agreement between the powers and Turkey,whereas hitherto the sultan had always treated them ashis own territorial waters. Russia had recognized theGreek question to be of European concern, as she hadshown most notably in her victorious treaty of Adrianople(1829); but her other interests in the Ottoman empirehad been regarded by her as matters to be regulated by
herself and Turkey alone. Now she admitted the Straitsas of European concern. Defeat in the Crimea and thetreaty of Paris (1856) compelled her to admit all Ottomanquestions as of European concern.Shortly before the Crimean War Nicholas I communingwith himself had sketched "the least bad of all badcombinations "; Constantinople might be a free city witha Russian garrison on the Bosphorus and an Austrian onthe Dardanelles. Later in the same year (1853) hesuggested to the emperor Francis Joseph Constantinopleas a free city and the razing of the fortifications at theBosphorus and the Dardanelles. The bitter arbitramentof war ended with the razing of fortifications; but theywere Russian not Turkish.The treaty of Paris (1856) signalized the nadir ofRussian influence in Turkey. Until Sedan (1870) Francewas preponderant at Constantinople, with Great Britainrunning a good second. The Russian naval stronghold,Sebastopol, had been captured and her fleet scuttled ordestroyed. The treaty forbade her to build another inthe Black Sea or to construct any arsenals on its coast.Turkey was similarly shackled in the Black Sea, but sinceshe could keep a fleet in the Sea of Marmara or theMediterranean and, in case of war with Russia, pass itthrough the Bosphorus, it was obvious that the shackleson Turkey were light. As regards the Straits, the Londonconvention of 1841 was renewed, but a secret alliancebetween Great Britain, France, Austria, and Turkey(known to the Russians) virtually opened them to theWestern powers in case of Turkish need. Russia wasforced back from the mouths of the Danube by thecession of southern Bessarabia. Over against Transcaucasia,the commanding fortress of Kars, which hadbeen brilliantly stormed for the second time (1855, 1829),had to be restored. Russia had to renounce all herprevious rights or claims in regard to the Principalities,Serbia, and the Orthodox subjects of the sultan.The neutralization of the Black Sea and the cessionof southern Bessarabia were specially onerous andhumiliating. Alexander II (1855-81) was determinedto rid himself of " these two nightmares," as he styled282
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UNIVERSALLIBRARYOU_214617UNIVERSALL
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SURVEYOFRUSSIAN HISTORYbyB. H. SUMN
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CHAPTERI. THE FRONTIERCONTENTS1. TY
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MAPS1. THE U.S.S.R. (WESTERN PORTIO
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Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, and
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MAP IU.S.S.R. (WESTERN PORTION)West
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half-Russian), the Transcaucasian r
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honey, and wax provided essentials
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called podzol soils, grey sands and
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(I)ST JOHN THE BAPTIST, YAROSLAVL,
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movement of game and fur-bearing an
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By the sixteenth century the scatte
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other natural conditions made agric
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population were relatively free pea
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similar, and for centuries they had
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merchant-adventurers and sea-captai
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Byzantium or eastward into the step
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and external struggles, especially
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and opened the vista of the Volga a
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social conditions in Poland fomente
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followed slowly by the plough, into
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frontier region was less all-pervad
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For long a certain degree of mobili
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gone down river far away south into
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elected but appointed by the war mi
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Cossacks, 'men of service' settled
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sites. Some settled in the old Sibe
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(I)PETER THE GREAT, 1672-1725From t
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contrary it is necessary that there
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(according to the old Russian calen
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even a member of it after 1923. He
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headed first by the moderate libera
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words, "the regime of the dictators
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"the Supreme, Autocratic power belo
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was spoken of as a dress rehearsal.
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The bureaucracy meant the governmen
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the army in decomposition, there wa
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odies, the provincial and municipal
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functions and together with the pol
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Muscovy as the patrimony of the tsa
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his eldest son or, failing sons, to
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and then killed, as being the rally
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officers, but they were educated th
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The Byzantine inheritance is more d
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the necessity for unfettered autocr
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manorial administration of the prin
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the first concern of tsarism and in
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Ivan was a man who did not take ris
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extinguished, largely because after
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een broken down during the two prev
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Similarly, the council of magnates
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portion of his own handiwork in fra
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On the other hand, they could not u
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eigned 1801-25) was part of his gen
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particularly their generals-adjutan
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pleading of which might excite publ
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1793, 1795; Finland, 1721, 1743, 18
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producer and trader in his realm. T
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instituted (1804) a regularly organ
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of agriculture, took on a new form
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inevitably a full-scale revolution
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at a tempo unknown in the modern hi
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election is usually in effect contr
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'and sown grasses, even though cere
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the two had reached most dangerous
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[revolutionary propaganda]," a peas
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institutions were also encouraged,
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though it had been considerably imp
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(iv) Emancipation of the peasants,
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three times deferred or in part can
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in the eighties. It is no wonder th
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The edict of 1762 did not in fact r
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itterly resented. Marriage required
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peoples remained with their own cus
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These last two classes were not fre
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not offer such advantages in the wa
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Direct taxation of various kinds, b
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members of the commune regulated in
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organization continued for long to
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The commune or subdivisions of it,
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the peasantry and of the social his
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in composition, and one of Razin's
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from St Petersburg to impose a sett
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If need be the reigning monarch was
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leaving a chain of fires, but witho
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ST DMITRI, VLADIMIR, 1193-97(a)DYAK
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some support from across the fronti
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traditions and the past, may contri
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and their retainers, but there was
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Becket until Nikon, the Patriarch o
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the peasantry, some of which derive
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the west the Lithuanians—the last
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close and far-reaching as the monas
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" I , John, am tsar and priest, up
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the fact that about fourteen per ce
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though in fact they were a return t
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accentuated their disunion and dimi
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he abolished the patriarchate and r
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patriarchate. Disendowment and dise
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during the partition period (1772-1
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the German Blitzkrieg were promptly
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half Russian or Lithuanian. In this
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The state language (to some extent
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Sigismund III of Poland, on the cre
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in the War of the Polish Succession
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earlier in secret conclave with her
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purveyor of cosmopolitan enlightenm
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under his control the grand-duchy o
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continuously against all his Russia
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and could not be understood by Euro
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The peasantry took little part in t
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3. The Ukrainian QuestionThe major
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It is quite true that Russian histo
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pp. 49-50 and note); but they were
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The main reason why the struggle fo
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Page 243 and 244: though divided in their attitude to
Page 245 and 246: For some ten years Ukrainian Commun
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Page 249 and 250: Empire (see pp. 178-179), but conne
Page 251 and 252: These generally conservative direct
Page 253 and 254: Prior to the Crimean War the Slavop
Page 255 and 256: and the last a great deal, to pansl
Page 257 and 258: and her liberation from Turkey. A g
Page 259 and 260: than Buda-Pest or Vienna. Anti-Germ
Page 261 and 262: Finns, for about seven centuries wi
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Page 265 and 266: y the Red Army, but Estonia, Latvia
Page 267 and 268: towards the Allies were engendered,
Page 269 and 270: conquest of Finland by the Swedes;
Page 271 and 272: Half a century after Ivan the Great
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Page 275 and 276: had he succeeded in rallying the ma
Page 277 and 278: the learning and culture of enlight
Page 279 and 280: Sweden, and Finland, outside direct
Page 281 and 282: Swedish navy had reasserted itself
Page 283 and 284: evolution and Finland, to which the
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Page 287 and 288: Straits become a perpetual plague-s
Page 289 and 290: diplomatic pressure by Russia. Even
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Page 295 and 296: the congress the Russian and Britis
Page 297 and 298: an eventual annexation by her of Bo
Page 299 and 300: uncoiled, the new regime in Russia
Page 301 and 302: least definitely hostile. For this
Page 303 and 304: Armenia and Azerbaidzhan (see map i
Page 305 and 306: Russians and even imposed a conside
Page 307 and 308: A new Georgian literature and cultu
Page 309 and 310: Moscow. A month earlier Georgia had
Page 311 and 312: War, and the triumph, in company wi
Page 313 and 314: eing in direct relations with the U
Page 315 and 316: In that year Far Eastern affairs we
Page 317 and 318: great, but she still remained in po
Page 319 and 320: new Soviet state was so exhausted a
Page 321 and 322: there had previously taken place a
Page 323 and 324: notable withdrawal, but the governm
Page 325 and 326: CHAPTER VIITHE WEST1. Russia and Eu
Page 327 and 328: (I)THE EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY URALSBogo
Page 329 and 330: the specifically Russian achievemen
Page 331 and 332: the West. Such centres were, howeve
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Page 335 and 336: ight had I," cries Kropotkin in his
Page 337 and 338: or apathy by the peasants, and the
Page 339 and 340: had been different again. There had
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mainly because Catholics were synon
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In ' the western lands ' printing,
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(b. 1643, banished to the Arctic 16
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went off as a member of 'the great
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science. He succeeded posthumously
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variable and the use of Russian as
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or (as for instance Osterman in the
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the middle of the eighteenth centur
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to the Academy of Sciences, and he
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from England and Germany. Russian m
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down to the serf's hut. From small
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operating in Russia: a 'free labour
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and by a few large-scale British-Ru
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addition to extremely low purchasin
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cent, was held by foreigners, as co
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of Bastiat and Cobden. There follow
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of Western Art one of the finest co
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imperialism in the Middle and Far E
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section of the town-dwellers, espec
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extent the commune. This helps to a
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pay had been made to it, and it was
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stood for Western democracy of a li
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than any since that of 1891, capped
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(4) There were just enough speciali
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CoalIron ore . . . .Pig-iron . . .
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including agriculture, all transpor
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commitments have been incurred than
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explicitly emphazised as a most imp
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Total populationUrban .Rural .19391
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policy pursued in the ten years bef
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often as not she was one of the dec
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Russia, as the Crimean War gave amp
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country by looting. The Russian arm
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illustrated by the Bavarian success
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the Napoleonic period hgr eastern i
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humbling of their pride and by the
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Niemen. Twelve weeks later Napoleon
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to the invader. He was torn to the
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of European peace might be formed,
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and the French, followed by war wit
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could to rebuild the rampart, to re
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of the Holy Alliance. There were, i
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Europe. Left to himself he would sw
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with the contrast in their own case
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agreed that Russia could not fight,
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Ferdinand, in Sarajevo, the capital
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The isolation of Russia after the c
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only if Germany were not the attack
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e disturbed as to the solidity of t
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championship of the Polish cause we
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and giving it a pro-French orientat
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evivified and extended the alliance
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powers" was not directly affected b
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which was one main reason for the p
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against her, had become impracticab
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against Western imperialism. The el
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fear drove both to combine, loosely
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CHRONOLOGICAL TABLEDates, as elsewh
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1768-721767-8176417621756-631755175
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1425-62141014081406-814041399139713
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NOTE ON BOOKSTHE following list of
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Times to the Death of Dostoevsky (1
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Sir Bernard Pares, The Fall of the
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INDEXFor Russian foreign relations
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Factory workers: see Industrial dev
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Monasteries: 27, 48, 177-8, 182-4,1
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Skdbelev: 429.Slaves and slavery: 2
show all

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